RITA S. SASLAW
Student Societies in Nineteenth Century
Ohio: Misconceptions and Realities
Student societies flourished in American
colleges in the first half of the
nineteenth century. Historians of higher
education have viewed this
development as a student attempt to
bring about substantive change in the
curriculum and extracurricular life.1
This idea follows logically from the
fact that these societies grew in a
period of numerous reform movements,
movements dedicated to deliberate attempts
to remake American society.
The nineteenth century was a time of
great change that saw the expansion
of frontiers and with it the extension
of democracy and such supporting
institutions as the midwestern colleges,
of which Ohio had a large number.2
This period witnessed reform movements
in almost all phases of American
life which had an effect upon the
developing western colleges and upon the
student societies that were encouraged
to exist within their structure. The
role of these societies has not been
studied in depth; but historians of higher
education, such as Frederick Rudolph,
John Brubacher, George Schmidt,
and Richard Hofstadter, tend to place
twentieth century value systems
upon nineteenth century men and view
these student societies as an
instrument of change in a reform era.
The colleges of nineteenth century
America, however, were conservative
institutions with the role of
preserving the values of society for
oncoming generations, and hence, the
colleges and often their students came
reluctantly to the various reform
causes. The Ohio colleges were no
exception to this rule.
The student societies were formed with
literary and moral self-
improvement as their goal and, as such,
were an integral part of that well-
established institution, the nineteenth
century college. As a means of
granting students control of a small
segment of their college lives, the
Rita S. Saslaw is an Assistant Professor
of Education at The University of Akron.
1. Frederick Rudolph, The American
College and University: A History (New York,
1962), 144.
2. Donald G. Tewksbury, The Founding
of American Colleges and Universities Before the
Civil War: With Particular Reference
to Religious Influences Bearing Upon the College
Movement (New York, 1932).
Student Societies
199
student societies were, if not a total
failure, certainly not a total success. A
twentieth century researcher finds
encouragement in the students' praise of
their experience in the literary
societies and comes to believe that these
groups provided a forum for students'
awakening social conscience. "I got
fully as much out of the literary
society as I did from anything else in
college,"3 was a common
student comment. It is, however, the outlook of
the 1960s and the 1970s that causes one
to look for activist student
movements in long-past periods of
American history.
The idea, a romantic one at best, that
the student societies provided a
forum in which students could read about
and discuss topics that were not a
part of the nineteenth century college
curriculum remains in the literature
concerning the societies. A new view of
the nature of the antebellum college
curriculum has been presented by Douglas
Sloan, suggesting that there is
argument for a total revision of views
held about the nineteenth century
college. Sloan's ideas provide the basis
for the belief that there was not a
fixed classical curriculum that was
irrelevant to the student and resistant to
change. The picture most historians
create-that of a curriculum
consisting primarily of classical Greek
and Latin authors-is misleading;
for, as Sloan notes, the study of
natural science was valued even by the
evangelical Charles G. Finney, president
of Oberlin.4 This revised view of
the history of the college curriculum
contrasts with most writers' beliefs
concerning the function of student
societies, however. The latest edition of
the Brubacher and Rudy history of higher
education states that the student
society was "essentially a debating
club," but then goes on to describe the
groups as "more than a mere
extracurricular phenomenon" that posed a
threat to "the narrow and
traditional classical program of the old-time
college." Thus, Brubacher and Rudy
at the same time maintain and
challenge the myth.5 The
student society myth-that they were an
instrument of change-will continue to be
reinforced as long as there is no
new research (such as Sloan's) on the
contribution of these groups to
collegiate life. New texts, using the
ideas of Frederick Rudolph and
George Schmidt, will continue to
describe the literary societies as a student
attempt to modify a fixed curriculum.6
3. John G. White to Arthur C. Ludlow,
February 26, 1924, Case Western Reserve
University MSS, Cutler Letters.
4. Douglas Sloan, "Harmony, Chaos,
and Consensus: The American College
Curriculum," The Teachers
College Record 73 (December, 1971), 236.
5. John S. Brubacher and Willis Rudy, Higher
Education in Transition: A History of
American Colleges and Universities,
1636-1976, 3rd ed. (New York, 1976),
47.
6. Robert L. Church and Michael Sedlak, Education
in the United States: An Interpretive
History (New York, 1976), 34-35, Richard Hofstadter, Academic
Freedom in the Age of the
College (New York, 1955), 209; Rudolph, The American
College, 144; and George P.
Schmidt, The Liberal Arts College: A
Chapter in American Cultural History (New
Brunswick, 1957), 98.
200 OHIO HISTORY |
|
Two important Ohio colleges illustrate the idea that the student societies did not fill the role of a forum for social activism or the improvement of the curriculum, but instead were merely an integral part of college life. These two colleges developed simultaneously in the Western Reserve: Western Reserve College founded in Hudson in 1826 and Oberlin, a part of Oberlin Colony, founded in 1834. Both colleges were started by the Con- gregationalists with added support to Western Reserve from the Presbyterians under the Plan of Union.7 It is apparent that both colleges were formed on a deeply religious foundation, but here the similarities end. The two institutions were often rivals in many ways. Western Reserve seemed to exclude the reformer, Oberlin, to invite him in. Western Reserve exemplified the classical education of the Yale Report of 1828, while Oberlin followed Charles Grandison Finney's true revivalist spirit. A contemporary observer of both colleges' commencements in 1848 commented: At Hudson the reasoning powers were cultivated more than the imagination and sensibilities. At Oberlin the order was reversed . . . at Hudson the speakers seemed to have learned elocution more from precept than from example; at Oberlin more from example than from precept.8
7. Tewksbury, Founding of American Colleges, 124. 8. Robert S. Fletcher, A History of Oberlin College: From Its Foundation Through the Civil War, II (Oberlin, 1943), 835. |
Student Societies 201 |
That these differences did not impede the parallel development of student societies adds further support to the hypothesis that these groups merely succeeded in providing a protected arena for the discussion of political, philosophical, religious, and historical topics. A student of higher education can easily imagine Joseph Welch Barr traveling across the wilderness to Hudson, Ohio, in 1828. One can further imagine Mr. Barr conducting the first meeting of the Philozetian Society of Western Reserve College. Barr transferred from Hamilton college in his junior year and graduated from Western Reserve with the first class of 1830. He exemplified the westward movement of societies as he was known to have belonged to a similar society at Hamilton. It is also not surprising that on April 7, 1830, Barr met again with a second group of students who found "that it is expedient to form a literary society." The pattern of societies established at older colleges was repeated in Ohio; they were founded in pairs. This reflected their roles as debating societies. Barr and James Laughhead in traditional fashion were appointed a committee to confer with the faculty to obtain permission to form the Adelphic Society.9 One cannot quite as easily envision the beginning of the Ladies Literary Society of Oberlin. The difficulty lies in conceiving, at that time, of a society
9. Minutes of the Adelphic Society, April 7, 1830, and April 14, 1830, Case Western Reserve University MSS. |
202 OHIO HISTORY
of college women who would meet in the
manner of men to practice the
skills of writing, communicating, and
thinking.10
The practice of literary skills was the
primary purpose of most of the
student societies. This role was agreed
upon in both colleges by the
students, the faculties, and the
administrators. Such activity fit
well into the function of the nineteenth
century college, since literary self-
improvement was considered a direct
means of moral self-improvement,
and moral self-improvement was indeed
the primary goal of the college and
of life.
Evidence for agreement on purpose comes
from the following sources:
the constitutions of the societies and
their revisions, the society charters,
the faculty minutes, the trustee
minutes, the student society minutes, and
available personal accounts-all
documents written in the lofty language
of the nineteenth century. Interpreted
literally, these documents might be
viewed as instruments professing reform.
For this reason, intent must be
compared to action to determine if
indeed the societies were used as agents
of change. There is no evidence that the
students used the majority of these
student societies as instruments of
direct social action. The students were
very interested in literary
self-improvement; this was the only activity of
most of the societies from the time that
they were founded until the time
that they faded away.
There were limited exceptions to this
general rule, and some societies by
their names alone appear to have been
organizations dedicated to social
reform. The Oberlin Young Men's
Anti-Slavery Society proposed to
elevate blacks socially and morally. At
the first meeting, a committee was
appointed to select an agent to visit
the schools among the blacks and to
solicit people who were willing to teach
in these schools.1 The Agricul-
tural and Horticultural Society of
Oberlin planned and carried out certain
definite actions. Their calls to action
were couched in very religious terms,
but they did result in improved
conditions. After conferring with the
county supervisor about the condition of
the highway, they dispensed with
their regular meeting and worked to
improve the Oberlin Road. They were
aided in this uplifting work by the
faculty and ladies. The ladies brought the
dinner! "But with energy of
character and steadiness of purpose, we have
accomplished much."12 However,
the above groups were exceptions, and
10. Emilie R. Comings and Francis J.
Hosford, "The Story of L.L.S. "The First Woman's
Club of America," Oberlin Alumni
Magazine 23 (March, 1927), 10.
11. Constitution of the Oberlin Young
Men's Anti-Slavery Society, Oberlin College MSS,
Robert Fletcher Papers; Minutes of the
Oberlin Young Men's Anti-Slavery Society.
September 14, 1851, Oberlin College MSS,
Robert Fletcher Papers.
12. Annual Report of the Agricultural
and Horticultural Society, 1839, 1841, Oberlin
College MSS, Robert Fletcher Papers.
Student Societies
203
the traditional activities in which the
members engaged were not directed
toward supplementing the curriculum.
Thomas Harding in his study of the
college literary society found that
these organizations existed at all the
colleges in the East, the West, and the
South.13 While the scope of
these societies often appears to be large, one
must remember the limitations imposed by
the pervasive religious
atmosphere: "Let every literary
acquirement be seasoned with piety."14 In
other words, the nineteenth century
fusion of religion, economics, and
politics found its way into the student
society, with the result that students
regularly used nineteenth century reform
rhetoric.
It is possible to view these student
groups as miniature republics. Each
society had a constitution written early
in its existence, and conducted
meetings in accordance with
parliamentary procedure. A committee was
selected at the first meeting to write
the constitution and to return the
document to the society's members for
approval. This same procedure was
repeated at regular intervals. Several
revisions can be found for each
constitution, and numerous resolutions were
passed between revisions.
Study of these constitutions reveals
that they bear similarity to each other.
One could conclude that the
constitutions for all of the societies at Oberlin
and Western Reserve had been written
from a master form. There is even
evidence that the organizations at
Oberlin compared and approved each
other's constitutions.15 One
can assume that the documents were alike
either because the student societies
were involved in the same activities or
because the constitutions were mere formalities
and, hence, meaningless.
Because the constitutions were under
constant surveillance and subject to
so much study, the former assumption
holds true, and they can safely be
used here as evidence of intent on the
part of their members.
Evidence of the use made of these
constitutions exists in the minutes and
reports of the societies. A study of the
constitutions of all the societies
reveals that a standing constitutional
committee was often specified.
However, the changes made by these committees
and approved by the
entire membership were minor ones that
did not change the basic purpose
of the societies, which was
"cultivation of the moral and intellectual
powers"16 by the use of
"debates, composition, criticism and orations."17
Therefore, later "revised"
constitutions closely resembled original ones,
13. Thomas Spencer Harding, College
Literary Societies (New York, 1971), 543.
14. Elizur Wright, Sr., to Elizur
Wright, Jr., April 25, 1825, Western Reserve Historical
Society MSS, Elizur Wright, Sr., Papers,
#1994.
15. On September 3, 1856, the Phi Delta
Society recorded that the Young Men's Lyceum
approved the constitution of the Phi
Delta Society but suggested a change. Minutes of the Phi
Delta Society, September 3, 1856,
Oberlin College MSS.
16. Constitution of the Union Society,
1841-1850, Oberlin College MSS.
17. Constitution of the Adelphic
Society, 1830-1834, Case Western Reserve University
MSS.
204 OHIO
HISTORY
thus contradicting any notion that the
societies were concerned with
perfecting miniature republics.
Since the societies did not waiver in
their purposes over a period of thirty
years, at least as stated in their
constitutions, it is important to look
carefully at these stated purposes. The
Phi Delta Society of Western
Reserve College very clearly articulated
its intent in the preamble to its
constitution:
In unity there is strength; in
investigation there is improvement, and in
advancement there is happiness. In
consideration of the first we associate ourselves
together; in view of the second we
establish a regular system of action; and in
anticipation of the third we adopt Phi
Delta as our motto, Virtue as ourprerogative
and the following Constitution as our guide.18
It should be noted that the action
statement in this philosophy is directed
toward intellectual investigation. The
intent of the students is clear. In
nineteenth century language, the
students viewed these various societies as
a mean of self-improvement in the areas
of literature, friendship, and
morality that some might view as a
social action if it were not the stated
goal of numerous other nineteenth century
people. Further evidence of
intent comes from the charters given to
the societies by the state. The
Adelphic Society of Western Reserve
contains, along with other
stipulations, the directive that the
funds of the group be applied only to
literary purposes.19
Even those organizations not considered
to be literary also took as their
object improved morality. The members of
the Handel Society of Western
Reserve found that they were "under
a moral obligation to serve God with
the heart, and voice, and to sing unto
Him with the spirit, and
understanding also. ..20 Phi Beta Kappa,
organized at Western
Reserve but not Oberlin, established
literary exercises such as essays and
Greek and Latin translations as part of
their regular meetings.21 The
theological society of Oberlin College,
the Theological Literary Society,
stated its purpose was rhetorical
improvement.22 Nowhere in these society
constitutions was there a call to
action, which this researcher believes is
inherent in a definition of social
reform. Nowhere in these constitutions can
18. Constitution of the Phi Delta
Society, 1840-1860, Preamble, Case Western Reserve
University MSS.
19. Minutes of the Adelphic Society,
December 6, 1837, Case Western Reserve University
MSS.
20. Constitution of the Handel Society,
1828-1836, Case Western Reserve University
MSS.
21. Constitution of the Phi Delta Kappa
Society, Case Western Reserve University MSS.
22. Constitution of the Theological
Literary Society, 1844, Oberlin College MSS.
Student Societies
205
there be found an attempt to organize
the student body as agents of social
change. In all of them there was simply
stated the goal of self-improve-
ment.
Was the intent of student societies
essentially the same in colleges other
than Oberlin and Western Reserve? The
writings of Cotton Mather, who
belonged to the first society at Harvard
College in 1706, indicate these
same narrowly-drawn purposes. He found that
the students "resolved upon
essays to speak to one another and in
sweetest methods of brotherly love,
watch over one another or carry on some
suitable exercises of devotion
together. . . ,"23 David Potter, in
a monograph on debating in the colonial
colleges, noted that Columbia College
eliminated forensic debate from its
course work because two societies had
formed at the college that filled these
needs.24 These practices of
the colonial college societies continued into later
times and were brought to the West by
people like Joseph Barr. In the
nineteenth century South, societies are
best remembered for the training
that they gave in speech, and in this
they were actively aided by university
officials.25 Students at
Miami College in Ohio formed societies "to promote
morality, fellowship and good feeling
amongst us."26 Historians of higher
education did not err when they noted
that the societies aided in creating an
esprit de corps between the college and
its student body.
Constitutional revisions during the
period of this study reflect no
fundamental changes of purpose from the
colonial societies. New rules
were made for dividing the group for the
purpose of discussion, and offices
were often added to reinforce the basic
intent of the society. One example
of this was the addition of the Censor
in the second constitution of the Phi
Delta Society of Western Reserve. This
officer would speak after the
literary exercises on the general
character of the discussion and the
orations. Many of the new rules dealt
with behavior at the meetings. They
concerned such things as the proper
order of speaking, the times when
whispering was allowed, or the proper
times for leaving one's seat.27 These
modifications were not aimed at change
in purpose, but rather at insuring
orderly literary debate.
Student letters as well as the
constitutions often indicated what it was felt
could be gained from membership in the
various student societies.
Frederick G. Wright, a graduate of
Oberlin, commented on the lack of
23. Clarence P. Shedd, Two
Centuries of Student Christian Movements: Their Origin and
Intercollegiate Life (New York, 1934), 1-2.
24. David Potter, Debating in the
Colonial Chartered Colleges: An Historical Survey,
1642 to 1900 (New York, 1944), 56.
25. Frank B. Davis, "The Literary
Societies of Selected State Universities of the Lower
South" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1949), 363, 418.
26. Virgil E. David, "The Literary
Societies in 'Old Miami' From 1825 to 1873"
(unpublished Master's thesis, Miami
University, 1950), 16.
27. Constitution of the Phi Delta
Society, 1840-1860, Article 4, #15.
206 OHIO
HISTORY
secrecy in the societies and seemed to
agree with other student views of the
literary societies when he described
their existence as open societies where
debate and parliamentary procedure were
practiced.28 S. G. Whittlesey, a
Reserve student, commented upon the
impulse among the men to discuss
and lecture on their favorite topic.29
A mania, as Whittlesey called it, could
be well satisfied in the duly constituted
student societies. A. S. Kedzie of
Western Reserve recalled that the
Philozetian and Adelphic Societies met
"weekly for debate and literary
exercises."30 A woman student at Oberlin
has left a very succinct description of
her society:
We have connected with our Seminary, a
Literary and Religious association, in
which capacity we meet frequently and
each one in turn, according to
appointments, writes and communicates to
us her thoughts on some important and
interesting subject.31
No inconsistency exists between these
students' views of the student
societies and the picture revealed by
careful study of their constitutions.
The most succinct evidence to support
the hypothesis that these societies
were but a small part of the established
nineteenth century college comes
from an examination of the membership of
these student groups. A caustic
account of the history of Oberlin
College written by a student of the period,
Delazon Smith, included a comment on
society membership. Smith noted
that there was very little time for real
study, and yet there were many stu-
dent societies. If the student did not
attend the student societies, "he would
do it at the sacrifice of his
reputation, for an individual who does not go
heart and hand into all the measures of
Oberlin is not desired to remain in
the place."32 Student
society membership was not entirely voluntary. Al-
most all the students belonged to at
least one society, and the faculty often
had a hand in inspiring, founding, and
populating the societies.
Most students belonged to the many
societies at Western Reserve
College, indicating that here too it was
accepted procedure for a student
to attach himself to one or more of the
groups. The faculty concerned itself
with maintaining equal numbers in the
groups that existed:
28. Frederick G. Wright, Story of My
Life and Work (Oberlin, 1916), 74.
29. S. H. Whittlesey to C. Cutler,
November 6, 1845, Case Western Reserve University
MSS, Cutler Letters.
30. A. S. Kedzie to C. Cutler, March 20,
1876, Case Western Reserve University MSS,
Cutler Letters.
31. Mary Ann Adams to John Keep, July
10, 1839, Oberlin College MSS, Robert Fletcher
Papers.
32. Delazon Smith, A History of Oberlin:
Or New Lights of the West Embracing the
Conduct and Character of the Officers
and Students of the Institution: Together With the
Colonists, From the Founding of the
Institution (Cleveland, 1837), 15.
Student Societies 207
In view of the instructors, it will be
conducive to the welfare of the two Literary
Societies in this college to receive for
the future each an equal number of members
33
alphabetically of such as shall
hereafter enter the regular classes .. .33
Without question, the majority of all
college students belonged to at least
one student society.
Not all of those who have studied
college histories are aware of the extent
of the student society membership. All
but nine of the students at Western
Reserve College who were officially
enrolled belonged to one or more
society; this statistic becomes even
more impressive when it is known that
it is all but nine of 384 listed
students. Ninety-eight percent of the students
at Western Reserve College in the period
between 1839 and 1860 belonged
to the student societies. This seems to
prove beyond question that the stu-
dent societies were not limited to
attracting only a certain type of student,
such as one who got better grades, one
who was more interested in social
reform, or one who was in any way
distinctive from his fellow students.34
The faculty minutes of Oberlin and
Western Reserve College give
additional support to the view that the
student societies were primarily
places where students could practice the
skills of rhetoric and composition.
The societies at Oberlin and Western
Reserve enjoyed a special rapport
with their faculties. It was a paternalistic
arrangement-the faculty, the
father; societies, the dutiful sons and
daughters. It is hardly surprising that
the professors and trustees agreed with
student society intent as described
in this article. Society meetings
provided excellent opportunities to
practice skills only minimally provided
for in the classical college
curriculum. The faculties approved of
the societies but did not relinquish
control of them. Western Reserve's
faculty authorized a new society by
providing that the constitution and
bylaws of the society had to be
approved by the president of the college
and that the society be open to the
president at all times. This provision
was reinforced by a college law of the
same nature that went unchanged in the
entire period examined.35 The
33. Minutes of the Faculty, June 13,
1832, Case Western Reserve MSS.
34. This information was gathered by
comparing those students listed in the grade book
against the society membership lists,
and checking the names of those students who signed the
constitutions, a requirement for
membership. Records of Grades of Western Reserve College,
Case Western Reserve University MSS.
35. Minutes of the Faculty, November 20,
1857. The exact wording of the college law
states: "No association of the
students for literary, scientific, moral, or religious purposes, nor
any organized society of any
description, shall exist in the college except by permission of the
Faculty; and all principles, rules, and
proceedings of any such society or association shall be
subject to the inspection and control of
the faculty." Laws of Western Reserve College, 1833,
1835, 1838, 1846, 1857, Case Western
Reserve University MSS. The Faculty also maintained
some control of behavior in the society
meetings, as evidenced in the dismissal of Frederick A.
Hudson; Minutes of the Faculty, January
21, 1829, Case Western Reserve University MSS.
208 OHIO HISTORY
students of the early nineteenth century
at Oberlin and Western Reserve,
then, did not attempt to revolt against
the system and, in fact, approved of
faculty interest and control.
The educational philosophies of the two
institutions help to ex-
plain faculty desire for control of the
student extra-curricular activities.
Charles Storrs, the President of Western
Reserve, stated his concern for the
development of the whole man and his concern
for avoiding foolish
amusements.36 The original
circular of Oberlin College also contained
statements about providing the
"best in moral and physical education." It
was noted that there was no single
course of study that could achieve the
goal of a pious elite.37 This
would suggest an early understanding of the
complexity of learning and the value of
informal education. Frederick
Rudolph has termed this total education
as the "collegiate way." This
tradition was fundamental and
all-encompassing, for it involved a total
way of life for the college student. The
"collegiate way" depended upon a
residential setting that included a
curriculum, a library, a faculty, and
students. All of this would be found in
a rural setting that was dependent
upon dormitories and dining halls and
"permeated by paternalism."38 The
faculty relationship that existed
between the professors and the student
societies fits perfectly into the
picture of the "collegiate way," and thus it is
surprising that Rudolph missed this
connection and saw a more creative
role for the societies.
Tradition and the ideas of those who
chose to be professors perhaps
accounts for a paternalistic attitude
toward the student societies. However,
a more elusive reason might have been
significant. It has been suggested
that college administrators and teachers
realized the wisdom of allowing
students some freedom to dissent. A
perfect vehicle for this would have
been the student society in which
current questions such as abolition and
intelligence differences between the
races and the sexes could be discussed
in a contained manner. This idea was not
accepted at all colleges. Lane
Seminary in Cincinnati provided an
example of opposition as the following
statement from the trustee minutes
indicates: "Association and discussions
foreign to the course of instruction,
distract the attention, and retard
improvement especially in the case of
topics of public interest and popular
excitement."39 However,
Oberlin and Western Reserve affirmed their faith
36. Charles B. Storrs, An Address
Delivered at the Western Reserve College, Hudson,
Ohio, February 9, 1831 (Boston, 1831).
37. Oberlin College, Original Circular,
March 8, 1834, Oberlin College MSS, Robert
Fletcher Papers.
38. Rudolph, The American College, 87.
39. Trustee Minutes, Lane Seminary,
August 20, 1834, Oberlin College MSS, Robert
Fletcher Papers.
Student Societies
209
in some form of academic freedom, at
least in the area of free speech. The
Board of Trustees of Western Reserve
stated:
Resolved that we adopt as our own act,
reiterate the sentiment contained in a
printed report of the Prudential
Committee in 1935 [sic]. Freedom of discussion
both among themselves, and in presence
of the Faculty is allowed students on all
subjects, and no restraint has been laid
on them in this particular either by the
Faculty or the Trustees ....40
One cannot reconstruct the motivation of
the faculty and trustees
of these institutions to discover
whether they were motivated by
the principles of academic freedom or by
the more paternalistic idea of
merely allowing a little freedom to
young students. Nonetheless, the
evidence that has been presented
indicates that it was the latter.
The intent of the faculty in allowing
the establishment of societies has
been considered, but the means of
faculty control should not be ignored.
The influence of the faculty permeated
the organization of the societies and
their continuing activities. The
students first asked if the various societies
could be formed,41 then sought
approval of their constitutions. This was
not always a mere formality; the Society
of Natural History at Oberlin
received some recommended changes from
the faculty.42 This seeking of
approval was not confined to the
institutions of the Western Reserve. At
Trinity College, Connecticut, the
president wrote the constitution of one of
the literary societies and was an
ex-officio member.43 Control did not end
with the composition and approval of the
constitution, but continued with
the approval of commencement speeches
and topics, meeting times and
places, and even extended to the
selection of members. In the Handel
Society of Western Reserve, it even
resulted in a faculty request to remove
some objectionable words from a song
being performed44 and to the dis-
missal of a student, Frederick A.
Hudson, for "keeping cards in his room;
improper and ungentlemanly conduct in
the Literary Society which the
Faculty considered as under their
patronage. . . .45
The careful surveillance imposed upon
the student societies illustrates
the concern that the faculty had for the
students. There is no doubt that
professors felt themselves a part, if
only an advisory one, of these groups.
40. Trustee Minutes, Western Reserve
College, August 22, 1836, Case Western Reserve
University MSS.
41. Minutes of the Faculty, June 23,
1847, Case Western Reserve University MSS.
This is a typical entry requesting
permission to form a society. In addition, in 1838
the Adelphic Society had difficulty in
obtaining a charter from the State of Ohio because the
charter lacked faculty signatures; A
committee of students met with the faculty to correct the
situation. Minutes of the Adelphic
Society, January 15, 1838.
42. Minutes of the Faculty, July 10,
1839, Oberlin College MSS, Treasurer's Office.
43. Harding, College Literary
Societies, 306.
44. Minutes of the Faculty, July 21,
1841, Case Western Reserve MSS.
45. Minutes of the Faculty, January 21,
1829, Case Western Reserve University MSS.
210 OHIO HISTORY
There is also no doubt that the students
readily accepted this control and
were even offended when the system was
criticized. In the periodical
published by the literary societies of
Oberlin, there appeared an attack
upon disrespect for college faculties.
The students warn against an attempt
to undermine the job of the faculty, to
improve moral character.46
Although lines of communication were always
open between the students
and the faculty, in only a very few
instances did the student societies
question faculty decisions. Moreover,
even in these few instances the
decision of the faculty was always
final. The faculty was indeed the father,
and the society members the children.
Both the students and the faculties
saw the societies as organizations for
moral and literary self-improvement.
The effect of the student societies upon
the students should not be
exaggerated at the expense of the many
other influences upon them,
such as the standards their families set
for them. Also, the fact that they
desired a college education in the first
place, sometimes at great personal
travail, set them apart from the rest of
the population. That the students
often envisioned a unique mission or
role helped to produce future
leaders. The family lived with while at
Oberlin or the students boarded with
at Western Reserve must have implanted
some ideas. The student society,
however, did play a role in this multiplicity
of influences. In addition to an
opportunity to discuss current events
and improve literary skills, the social
function of forming friendships should
not be overlooked. The closing
statement in the oldest society minute
book indicated this feeling: "The
sacred ties of college life make sacred
this book."47
The student groups, then, were formed
with literary and moral self-
improvement as their goal. Social
intercourse with fellow students was
certainly a by-product of these groups.
The fact that student societies
enjoyed a fairly long history, and
during their entire history maintained
faculty support and faculty favor,
indicates at least qualified success.
However, they were not a means to
achieve social reform. They were, for
the most part, an integral part of the
nineteenth century college and
nineteenth century establishment.
46. H. C. Hitchcock, "Our Yale
Brethren," Oberlin Students Monthly, 1, 392.
47. Minutes of the Philozetian Society,
1828-1831, Case Western Reserve University MSS.
RITA S. SASLAW
Student Societies in Nineteenth Century
Ohio: Misconceptions and Realities
Student societies flourished in American
colleges in the first half of the
nineteenth century. Historians of higher
education have viewed this
development as a student attempt to
bring about substantive change in the
curriculum and extracurricular life.1
This idea follows logically from the
fact that these societies grew in a
period of numerous reform movements,
movements dedicated to deliberate attempts
to remake American society.
The nineteenth century was a time of
great change that saw the expansion
of frontiers and with it the extension
of democracy and such supporting
institutions as the midwestern colleges,
of which Ohio had a large number.2
This period witnessed reform movements
in almost all phases of American
life which had an effect upon the
developing western colleges and upon the
student societies that were encouraged
to exist within their structure. The
role of these societies has not been
studied in depth; but historians of higher
education, such as Frederick Rudolph,
John Brubacher, George Schmidt,
and Richard Hofstadter, tend to place
twentieth century value systems
upon nineteenth century men and view
these student societies as an
instrument of change in a reform era.
The colleges of nineteenth century
America, however, were conservative
institutions with the role of
preserving the values of society for
oncoming generations, and hence, the
colleges and often their students came
reluctantly to the various reform
causes. The Ohio colleges were no
exception to this rule.
The student societies were formed with
literary and moral self-
improvement as their goal and, as such,
were an integral part of that well-
established institution, the nineteenth
century college. As a means of
granting students control of a small
segment of their college lives, the
Rita S. Saslaw is an Assistant Professor
of Education at The University of Akron.
1. Frederick Rudolph, The American
College and University: A History (New York,
1962), 144.
2. Donald G. Tewksbury, The Founding
of American Colleges and Universities Before the
Civil War: With Particular Reference
to Religious Influences Bearing Upon the College
Movement (New York, 1932).