THE CHARCOAL IRON INDUSTRY OF THE
HANGING ROCK IRON DISTRICT--ITS IN-
FLUENCE ON THE EARLY DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE OHIO VALLEY
BY WILBUR STOUT
INTRODUCTION
The Hanging Rock Iron District, as
defined by the
iron masters, embraced the furnaces and
furnace lands
and also the adjacent properties over
which iron ores,
limestones, and charcoal were gathered.
It included
parts of Carter, Boyd and Greenup
Counties, Kentucky,
and parts of Lawrence, Scioto, Gallia,
Jackson, Vinton
and Hocking Counties, Ohio.
The district has an elliptical shape, a
length of more
than 100 miles, a maximum width of 28
miles, and a
trend of 18 degrees east of north,
which is close to that
of the strike of the rock strata. The
area grew by ex-
pansion along the outcrop of the ore
beds as the lines of
transportation were pushed farther and
farther out
from the original means, the Ohio
River. Within this
field all the raw materials necessary
for the smelting of
charcoal iron were provided by nature
in abundant
quantity.
The area south of the Ohio River was
roughly 510
square miles and that north of this
stream 1,290 square
miles. The district, in 1875, included
69 charcoal
furnaces and 16 coal or coke furnaces,
the latter repre-
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Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley 73 |
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74 Ohio
Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
senting a progressive step in the iron industry. Iron
smelting in the area was inaugurated by the building
of
Argillite furnace on the Kentucky side of the river
and
by that of Union on the Ohio side. The former was
erected in Greenup County, in 1818, by Richard Deering
and Trimble Brothers and had a capacity of one ton per
day. North of the Ohio River in the Hanging Rock
District, the pioneer furnace was Union, built a few
miles north of Hanging Rock in 1826 by James Rodgers
and Company. These furnaces were successful, supply-
ing a needed want for iron in the Ohio Valley. Their
prosperity led to the building of others until after
the
Civil War.
On the Ohio side the last charcoal furnace to be
placed in blast was Grant which was located on the
river
bank at Ironton and which began operations in 1869.
South of the river such construction was brought to a
close when Iron Hills or Charlotte furnace was erected
in 1873 at Riverton, Kentucky.
Distribution, Names, Locations, Etc.
The distribution of these furnaces was as follows:
State
County Furnaces Furnaces
Kentucky Charcoal
Coal or Coke
Greenup ............. 16
Boyd ................ 4
Carter ............... 4 2
Total .............. 24 2
Ohio
Lawrence ............
16 4
Scioto ............... 9
Gallia ............... 1
Jackson ..............
11 10
Vinton .............. 6
Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley 75
State
County Furnaces Furnaces
Ohio Charcoal Coal or Coke
Hocking
............. 2
Total.............. 45 14
Total.............. 69 16
The names, locations, dates of erection, capacities,
and names of builders of the furnaces in the Hanging
Rock District to 1876 are listed below:
Charcoal Furnaces
Name When
Daily
of
County State Built Ca- Builders
Furnace pacity in
tons
Amanda
Boyd Ky. 1829
5 Lindsey Poague
and others
Argillite
Greenup Ky. 1818
1 Richard Deering &
Trimble Bros.
Bellefonte
Greenup Ky. 1826
14 A. Paull, Geo.
Poague & others
Bloom
Scioto Ohio 1832 15 John
Benner and
others
Boone
Carter Ky. 1856
12
Sebastian Eifort
and others
Buckeye
Jackson Ohio 1851
12 C. Newkirk and
others
Buckhorn
Lawrence Ohio 1833 15
James and Findley
Buena Vista Boyd Ky. 1848 15
Wm. Foster and
others
Buffalo
Greenup Ky. 1851
15 L. Hollister, Ross
and Co.
Cambria Jackson Ohio 1854 12 D. Lewis and Co.
Caroline Greenup Ky. 1833 3 Henry
Blake & Co.
Center Lawrence Ohio 1836 16 Wm.
Carpenter
and others
Cincinnati
Vinton Ohio 1853
13 McClanberg and
others
Clinton Boyd Ky. 1830 2 Poague Brothers
Clinton Scioto Ohio 1832 11 McCullum
& others
Eagle Vinton Ohio 1852 15 A. Bentley
& others
76 Ohio
Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
Charcoal Furnaces
Name When Daily
of
County State Built Ca- Builders
Furnace pacity in
tons
Empire Scioto Ohio 1846 7 Glidden
Brothers
Enterprise Greenup Ky. 1832 3 Clingman
& others
Etna Lawrence Ohio 1832 16 James
Rodgers and
others
Franklin
Scioto Ohio 1827
7 Daniel Young and
others
Gallia
Gallia Ohio 1847
15 John Campbell and
others
Globe
Greenup Ky. 1833
3 George Darlington
and others
Grant
Lawrence Ohio 1869
16 W. D. Kelley and
Sons
Hamden
Vinton Ohio 1854
16 L. C. Damarin and
others
Harrison
Scioto Ohio 1853
12
Eifort, Spellman
and Co.
Hecla Lawrence Ohio 1833 10 Hamilton
& McCoy
Hope Vinton Ohio 1854 14 Col. Putnam and
others
Hopewell Greenup Ky. 1832
Howard Scioto Ohio 1853 15 John Campbell and
others
Hunnewell
Greenup Ky. 1844
16 Campbell, Peters,
Culbertson Co.
Iron Hills
Carter Ky. 1873
Iron Hills Furnace
& Mining Co.
Jackson
Jackson Ohio 1838
12 Hurd, Young and
others
Jefferson
Jackson Ohio 1854
14 Jefferson Furnace
Co.
Junior
Scioto Ohio 1832
7 Young Brothers
and others
Kenton
Greenup Ky. 1856
13 John Warring and
others
Lagrange Lawrence Ohio 1836 7 Hurd,
Gould & Co.
Latrobe Jackson Ohio 1854 12 McGhee, Austin
and others
Laurel Greenup Ky. 1848 12 Wurts Brothers
Lawrence Lawrence Ohio 1834 15 J. Riggs and Co.
Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley 77
Charcoal Furnaces
Name When Daily
of
County State Built Ca- Builders
Furnace pacity in
tons
Limestone
Jackson Ohio 1855
12 Evans, Walter-
house & others
Lincoln Jackson Ohio 1853 12 S.
Baird and others
Logan Hocking Ohio 1853 15 Dumm Brothers
Madison Jackson Ohio 1854 14 Campbell, Terry
and others
Monitor
Lawrence Ohio 1868
13 John Peters and
others
Monroe
Jackson Ohio 1856
20
Campbell, Bolles
and others
Mt. Savage Carter Ky. 1848 14 Biggs and others
Mt. Vernon Lawrence Ohio 1833 16 Hamilton, Camp-
bell and Ellison
New Hamp-
shire
Greenup Ky. 1848
15 Seaton and Boyd
Brothers
Oak Ridge
Lawrence Ohio 1856
15 Mather and
Mitchell
Oakland Boyd Ky. 1834 7 Kouns Brothers
Ohio Scioto Ohio 1845 15 Sinton and Means
Olive Lawrence Ohio 1846 16 Campbell
and
Peters
Pactolus
Greenup Ky. 1824 3 McMurty & Ward
Pennsylvania Greenup Ky. 1848 12 Wurts
Brothers
Pine Grove Lawrence Ohio 1828 16 Hamilton
& Ellison
Pioneer Scioto Ohio 1856 12 Colvin, Tracy and
others
Raccoon
Greenup Ky. 1833
12 Trimble, Woodrow
and others
Sandy
Greenup Ky. 1847
Young, Gilruth
and others
Scioto Scioto Ohio 1828 12 Salters and others
Star Boyd Ky. 1847 McCullough
and
Lampton
Steam Greenup Ky. 1824 1 Shreeves Brothers
Union Lawrence Ohio 1826 1
James Rodgers
and Co.
Union
Hocking Ohio 1854
14 McManigal Bros.
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Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
Charcoal Furnaces
Name When Daily
of
County State Built Ca- Builders
Furnace pacity in
tons
Vesuvius
Lawrence Ohio 1833
10 Hurd, Gould and
others
Vinton Vinton Ohio
1853 20 Clarke, Culbertson
and others
Washington Lawrence Ohio 1853
17 Campbell, Peters
and others
Young
America
Jackson Ohio 1856
12
Powell, Oakes and
Co.
Zaleski
Vinton Ohio 1858
15 Zaleski Furnace
Co.
Coal or Coke Furnaces
Alice Lawrence Ohio 1875
60 Etna Iron Works
Ashland Boyd Ky. 1869 40 Lexington and Big
Sandy R. R. Co.
Belfont
Lawrence Ohio 1867 45
Belfont Iron
Works
Blanche Lawrence Ohio 1875
60 Etna Iron Works
Fulton Jackson Ohio 1865 12 Lewis Davis and
others
Globe Jackson Ohio 1872 20 Watts, Hoop & Co.
Huron Jackson Ohio 1874 12 Huron Iron Co.
Ironton Lawrence Ohio 1875
40 Iron and Steel Co.
Milton Jackson Ohio 1873 20 Milton Furnace
and Coal Co.
Norton
Boyd Ky. 1873 45
Norton Iron
Works
Ophir Jackson Ohio 1874 12 Bundy and others
Orange Jackson Ohio 1864 16 Watson and others
Star Jackson Ohio 1866 17 Brown and others
Tropic Jackson Ohio 1873 17 Tropic
Furnace
Co.
Wellston
Twins
Jackson Ohio 1875
15 Wellston Coal and
Iron Co.
PERIODS OF FURNACE BUILDING
Furnace building went somewhat by
spurts. The
first active period was for the three
years, 1832-1834,
when 15 stacks were placed in
operation. This was fol-
lowed by eleven years, 1835-1845, of
quietness, only five
firms entering the field. Industrial
activity again was
sufficient during 1846-1848 to cause
ten furnaces to be
erected, mainly in Kentucky. Owing to
the projection
of railroads into undeveloped areas in
Ohio, the most
energetic period of furnace building was
the four years,
1853-1856, when 21 stacks were
added. The total
reached in 1856 in the Hanging Rock
Iron District
was 65.
OUTSTANDING FEATURES
The outstanding furnace of the charcoal
group was
Hecla. Its fame, however, was due not
so much to the
superiority of the furnace as to its
great iron master,
John Campbell. Vesuvius furnace gained
prominence
among the iron-workers, because there
in 1836 was in-
troduced the use of hot blast instead
of cold air for the
smelting operation. Under the management
of Robert
Hamilton, in 1844, Pine Grove was the
first furnace to
suspend operations on Sunday. The
results were so
satisfactory that other furnaces
followed the practice.
Monroe, through its size and rich
limestone ore, was
noted for its capacity, making as much
as 20 tons per
day. Keystone, due to its location, to
the general clean-
liness of the ground, and to its
schools, churches, and
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Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 81
residences, was the model furnace of
the district. Jef-
ferson is outstanding not only for a
long and successful
campaign, but because it was the last
charcoal furnace
in Ohio to yield to the competition of
the coke furnaces.
It was placed in blast in 1854 and
suspended operations
in January, 1917. In fact, most of
these old charcoal
furnaces were interesting for some
phase, quality or
originality such as ore supply, furnace
location or equip-
ment, operating conditions, personnel
of management or
labor, social life, marketing
conditions, quality of
iron, etc.
DEVELOPMENT OF AREA
The charcoal furnaces caused a rapid,
early develop-
ment of the region which as previously
stated occupied
an area of approximately 1,800 square
miles. The en-
tire 69 charcoal stacks were built in a
span of 56 years,
1818-1873, inclusively. The addition
was thus over one
furnace per year. During the main period
of furnace
building, 1832-1856, this rate was more
than doubled,
for 55 furnaces were erected in 25
years. On account
of such development, both capital and
labor were at-
tracted to the area. Many of the
managers, foundry-
men, and colliers came from the iron
districts of Penn-
sylvania, Virginia, or New Jersey and a
few from even
England or Germany. This was also true
of the trades-
men. Through these men and their
influence much out-
side capital was brought into the
district and, what was
of most importance, it was put to work
either in the
iron industry directly, or in trade,
transportation, or
agriculture. The labor, in like manner,
was gathered
from a wide field. Many of the furnace
hands had
migrated westward with the industry
from the iron
Vol. XLII--6
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Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
regions east of the Appalachian
Mountains. Small num-
bers of raw immigrants especially those
of Irish, Welsh,
Scotch, English and German descent were
attracted to
the area on account of the labor
opportunities. They
found work mainly in the ore mines and
around the
charcoal pits. The wood choppers, as
would be expected,
were gathered largely from adjacent
areas of the
forested Alleghany Plateau. They were
at home in the
woods and were skilled axmen. The
teamsters were
recruited mainly from either the farms
or the sawmills
of the adjacent areas. Colored labor
did not appear at
the furnaces until after the Civil War
and then only in
small numbers and at only a few places.
DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE
Through the influence of the furnaces
the people
were well distributed over the entire
area instead of be-
ing concentrated at a few places.
However, through
better shipping facilities, more
furnaces were erected
within reach of the Ohio River than
were built farther
inland. In general, the furnaces were
rather uniformly
spaced from three to five miles apart
along the outcrops
of the Ferriferous and the Mercer ores.
The area
covered was over 100 miles in length
and from 10 to 25
miles in width. The distribution of the
furnaces in the
Hanging Rock District is shown in Map
1. The re-
quirements for the early furnaces or
those erected be-
fore 1840 were ordinarily placed at 100
men and 50
yokes of oxen. Those for the larger
furnaces built later
were considerably more, running even as
high as 200
laborers and 100 teams. Each furnace
thus constituted
a small settlement or village in
itself.
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 83
DIVERSITY OF LABOR
The charcoal furnaces provided a
diversity of labor,
as many tasks were required for the
production of iron.
The chief duties were erection and
repair of the furnace,
chopping and charring the wood, mining
ore and lime-
stone, hauling stock to the furnace,
smelting the ores,
hauling the iron to the market or to
the place of ship-
ment, dispensation of food for man and
beast through
the company store, and general management
of the en-
tire operation.
BUILDING OF THE FURNACE
With few exceptions the outer wall of
the stack and
the retaining wall for the stack yard
were built of sand-
stone from some convenient ledge
nearby. The stone
was quarried, blocked out in the rough,
and hauled to
the furnace site where the pieces were
then dressed to
the desired shape by the stonecutter
and laid in the wall
by the builder. The stone for the inner
lining was
selected with more care as the desired
material was a
fine grained, rather dense, clay-bonded
sandstone with
good refractory qualities. Usually this
was obtained
at no great distance as favored
quarries were located at
Junior, Hecla, Howard, Jefferson, and
Richland fur-
naces. The stone for the lining was
carefully dressed,
because it was required to fit the
circular battered wall
of the furnace. The masonry was laid in
a mortar com-
posed of sand and plastic clay. The
cast-house, engine-
house, head-house, and stock sheds were
constructed of
wood obtained from the furnace grounds.
The frame
was usually poles or hewn beams and the
siding and
sheeting just rough sawed lumber. The
chief roofing
84 Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications |
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Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 85
material was oak shingles riven by
hand. Thus, with
the exception of some machinery and
equipment such as
engines, pumps, boilers, and rings for
the stoves, these
old charcoal furnaces were constructed
of materials
gathered nearby and were erected by men
from the
district.
CAPACITY OF FURNACES
The well equipped hot-blast charcoal
furnace made
approximately 3,000 tons of iron per
year. The con-
sumption of fuel was, on the average,
3.79 cords of wood
or 137 bushels of charcoal per ton of
pig iron. The
yearly requirement in terms of wood was
thus 11,370
cords. With the cold-blast charcoal
furnace the annual
tonnage was not far from 2,000 tons.
Under these con-
ditions of smelting, the fuel necessary
was considerably
greater, as 5.84 cords of wood or 215
bushels of char-
coal were necessary to make one ton of
iron. Such a
cold-blast furnace used 11,680 cords of
wood per year.
Thus, the mean requirement of the furnaces
of the area
was not far from 11,500 cords per
annum.
CHOPPING OF THE WOOD
Only the most skilled axman could cut
and then
rank three cords of wood per day. With
the average
workman two cords were considered a
fair day's work.
The cutting of wood usually extended
from the middle
of October to the middle of April or
for a period of
about six months. Deducting holidays,
stormy days,
etc., the average working time would
not exceed 20 days
per month or 120 days per season. On
this basis 48
men were required to produce the 11,500
cords of wood
necessary for the blast of the furnace.
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Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
Virgin timber produced approximately 40
cords of
wood per acre and average second-growth
not far from
20 cords. Hence, with a furnace in full
operation, the
area of timber land worked over each
year would vary
from 200 to 600 acres. The acreage
generally considered
sufficient by the furnace manager was
between 300 and
350 acres. As the period for renewal of
timber for wood
was 20 to 30 years, the furnace tracts
necessarily ranged
from 6,000 to 10,000 acres. Wood
chopping thus placed
a group of men with each operating
furnace, distributed
them over the timbered areas, and kept
them moving
somewhat from year to year.
CHARCOAL MAKING
Charcoal making, one of the particular
and im-
portant operations in connection with
iron production,
was carried on by men, known as
colliers, who were
trained in the work and followed it
from year to year.
During the process of firing the pits
of wood, careful
attention had to be given day and night
in order to con-
trol the activity of the fires and
prevent loss either
through the complete consumption of the
wood to ashes
or through only partial charring
producing brands. The
colliers were a hardy lot, enduring
much from the heat
and dust of the pits and from the
adversities of the
elements.
A hearth upon which to burn the
charcoal was made
by leveling off a circular area 40 to
50 feet in diameter.
The location chosen was generally in
the valley along a
stream where water was available for
quenching the
freshly drawn charcoal. To this hearth
the wood was
hauled on sleds by oxen. The small wood
known as lap-
Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley 87 wood was placed by the haulers in a ring around the edge of the hearth, except for a roadway across the center. The heavier or coarser wood was then set on end against this rick of lap-wood until all the interior space except the roadway was filled. A pit of average size contained from 35 to 45 cords of wood. The next step was the setting of the wood to form the pit which in its final shape was a mound-shaped mass 35 to 40 feet |
|
in diameter and 10 to 12 feet high. This required first the building of a chimney in the center by cribbing wood and filling the opening with chips and other kindling for starting the fire. Against this as a base wood was set on end, leaning inward at a slight angle, and packed as closely as possible. A second tier was placed on the first and the top rounded over with lap-wood. The entire mound of wood was then covered with leaves and this |
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Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
in turn with a few inches of earth or charcoal dust, well
compacted to prevent circulation of air
and erosion by
rains. The charring process was
commenced by start-
ing a fire in the opening in the center
of the pit. After
the kindling was well ignited the
cavity was filled with
wood and brands and then covered with
leaves and dirt,
the same as the rest of the covering of
the pit. Suf-
ficient air was admitted through small
vent-holes to
cause only a charring of the wood with
the loss of the
volatile components. The rate of
burning and the migra-
tion of the fire to the sides and to
the bottom of the pit
was controlled by the system of air
vents placed as the
collier saw fit. Through such means the
wood was con-
verted into charcoal for use in iron
smelting.
After the charring process had been
completed,
which required from 12 to 20 days, the
charcoal was
drawn from the pit, a small quantity at
a time, and
quenched with water. Care was taken to
keep that re-
maining in the pit so covered and
smothered as to pre-
vent undue oxidation. This charcoal was
then loaded
into the tall beds of the wagons and
transported to the
furnace by four yoke of oxen. The bed
of standard size
contained 200 bushels of charcoal. Such
a load weighed
close to two tons. A bushel of charcoal
contained 2,688
cubic inches and with average stock
weighed 20 pounds.
The harder woods like oak, hickory, and
maple made a
heavier, harder charcoal than the
softer woods like pop-
lar, linden, and chestnut. The firm,
compact charcoal
was more desired by the foundryman than
the light,
spongy kind, because it crushed less
under the weight of
the stock and because it carried
farther down in the
furnace.
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 89
The labor involved in the production of
charcoal may
be included under the following
divisions:
a. Preparing the foundation or
hearth. If a new
hearth were built, it required the
labor of one
man for one to five days, depending
upon the nat-
ural advantages or disadvantages of the
surface
features. Re-use of an old hearth made
neces-
sary only the raking back of the dust
for covering
the pit. For this one day's labor was
amply suf-
ficient.
b. Setting the wood. It took one
man about two
days to set a pit of 35 cords of wood.
c. Leafing and blacking the pit. The
task of cover-
ing the pit with leaves, setting the
wood by
stamping, and then covering the whole
with dust
or earth was equivalent to about two
days' work
for one man.
d. Charring the wood. The time
of firing a pit
varied with the practice of the
individual collier,
with the size of the pit, with the
dryness of the
wood, with weather conditions, and with
other
incidental factors. The older practice
was to
hold the fire for about 20 days, but
the later cus-
tom was to push the firing more
rapidly, com-
pleting the pit in about 12 days.
e. Drawing the charcoal. Under
common practice
the labor equivalent of one man for
four or five
days was necessary to draw a pit of
charcoal.
The work could not be rushed. Only a
small
amount of charcoal was drawn at a time
and the
90 Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
opening of the pit sealed rapidly as
the exposed
fuel soon began to ignite and burn.
Usually two
men worked at the task.
MINING ORE AND LIMESTONE
The mining of ore occupied much time
and labor at
the charcoal furnaces as the supply was
drawn, with
few exceptions, from the thin beds that
outcropped in
the coal formations. As the entire area
is hilly and
naturally dissected, with a relief of
250 to 350 feet, and
as the rocks dip eastward normally at a
rate of 25 feet
per mile, the conditions favoring
mining changed with
the position of the ore on the hills,
that is, whether it
lay near the summits of the ridges, on
the steep bluff
of the hills, or near the valley floor.
The strata furnishing most of the
supply of ore
varied normally from three inches to
one foot four
inches in thickness. Locally, however,
small pockets of
ore were found two, five, or even more
feet in thickness.
The three most prominent ores were the
Little Red Block
or Lower Mercer, the Big Red Block or
Upper Mercer,
and the Ferriferous or Limestone. The
Little Red Block
ore lies usually from five to ten feet
above the Lower
Mercer limestone and is a true block
ore in that it mines
in rectangular blocks. The thickness
varies from two
to six inches, but averages close to
four inches. The
quality, for a coal formation ore, is
everywhere good.
The Big Red Block ore, with few
exceptions, lies on or
close to the Upper Mercer limestone or
to that horizon.
In southern Ohio the ore commonly marks
the place of
the limestone, as the latter is usually
absent. The de-
posit may be made up of one, two, or
even three distinct
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 91
benches of ore. The usual thickness of
the bed is from
six to 14 inches and the mean
measurement not far from
eight inches. This ore is rich in iron
and was well liked,
especially where it had been weathered
down along the
outcrop to a soft limonite. The most
successful char-
coal furnaces were those located along
the outcrop of
the Ferriferous ore on account of the
wide distribution
and the continuity of the bed and of the
quantity and
quality of the ore. Its stratigraphic
position is just
above the Vanport or Ferriferous
limestone, but the ore
is often present with good development
in areas where
the limestone is absent. The horizon
yields ore in two
forms. The lower one is an irregular
sheet deposit lying
on the limestone or on that horizon and
constituted the
dependable supply. The second form is
large nodules
of ore which are irregularly
distributed in a few feet
of shale that lies directly above the
lower ore and that
was known as the "ore slates"
by the miners. The com-
bined thickness of ore on this horizon
was from six to
eighteen inches and the average
measurement at least
ten inches. In general, the Ferriferous
ore was richer
than the other coal formation ores and
smelted readily
in the short stacks of the charcoal
furnaces. Other ores
drawn upon for limited supplies in the
Hanging Rock
District were Harrison, Guinea Fowl,
Lincoln or Jack-
son, Sand Block, Boggs, Canary, Red
Kidney, Yellow
Kidney, Peterson, Hallelujah, and Oak
Ridge.
The ores varied considerably in
quality. Under deep
covering all were bluish gray siderite
or ferrous car-
bonate. On protracted weathering along
the outcrop or
under shallow covering, the mineral
siderite was changed
to limonite, the hydrated ferric oxide.
The color of the
92 Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
weathered ore ranged from dark buff
through shades of
red to deep brown. The purity of the
ore depended pri-
marily on that of the parent rock. Most
of them were
argillaceous in character, others were
siliceous, some
were decidedly calcareous, and a few
moderately phos-
phatic. In the natural form the better
ores had an iron
content of 30 to 40 per cent. Such ores
on calcination
yielded from 45 to 55 per cent iron. In
general, the
furnace managers estimated 2.63 tons of
raw ore to one
ton of iron.
The mining of the ores was largely
confined to strip-
ping along the outcrop, as usually only
the weathered
limonite ore was desired. Along the
sides of the hills
the operations were confined to narrow
benches, but
often near the summits of some of the
ridges they were
much larger in area. The old rule in
stripping was that
one foot of overburden could be removed
for one inch
of ore. The thickness of the ore,
therefore, determined
the depth to which stripping was
practical. Usually the
depth was less than 12 feet. The
stripping was done
largely by pick and shovel and a
wheelbarrow. Along
the ridges and on the more gentle
slopes of the hills and
where the ore had good thickness, the
team and scraper
were successfully employed. Most of the
work was done
by men and boys, but such labor was
also shared by the
women and girls. Where the ore was
exceptionally thick
and was overlain by a few feet of shale
for entry, reg-
ular drift mining was practiced,
occasionally in a large
way. The most prominent areas for
drifting were those
around Ellisonville and Dean in
Lawrence County and
near Vinton Furnace in Vinton County.
The hot-blast
charcoal furnaces, making 3,000 tons of
iron per year,
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 93
thus required 7,890 tons of ore and the
cold-blast fur-
naces, capacity 2,000 tons per year,
thus demanded 5,260
tons of ore. For a bed of ore ten
inches in thickness,
the yield estimated by the furnace
manager was 2,800
tons per acre. The actual area thus
worked over each
year was two, three, or more acres. The
price paid the
miner for stripping and raising the ore
ready for the
hauler varied much throughout the long
period of char-
coal iron making. The common limits
were usually be-
tween 50 cents and $1.00 per ton and
the average not
far from 75 cents. Delivered to the
furnaces the price
ranged from $2.00 to $4.00 per ton,
depending on the
length of haul, the richness of ore,
and other factors.
Considering one and a half tons of ore
a fair day's
yield and 250 days a year for outside
labor, the men
required in the ore fields would vary
from 14 for the
smaller furnaces to 21 for the larger
stacks.
The mining and the hauling were not the
only labors
expended on the ore, for it was all
calcined to expel the
volatile components and then screened
to remove the
"fines" before it was charged
into the furnace. The
elimination of the volatile matter,
which was about 16
per cent in amount and which consisted
mainly of hydro-
scopic and combined water and carbon
dioxide, not only
saved heat in reduction, but increased
the capacity of
the furnace. Moreover, this processing
could be done
more cheaply outside than inside the
furnace. The cal-
cination of the ore ordinarily took
place at the furnace,
but occasionally this was done near the
center of im-
portant ore fields, notably near
Ellisonville and Dean in
Lawrence County and at Creola in
Vinton. At all the
early furnaces and at many of the more
modern char-
94
Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
coal stacks, the ores were burned in
large ricks or piles.
These were made by first placing a
layer of logs on the
ground with air-ducts to the center of
the ricks. The
logs were covered with fine wood and
this with a layer
of ore. The ore was then covered with a
layer of char-
coal brands and fine charcoal and this,
in turn, by ore.
Layer after layer of ore and fuel were
added until a
pile six to 15 feet or more in height
was accumulated.
A fire was then started toward the
center and at the
base of the pile and the mass allowed
to burn until the
fuel was all consumed. The calcined ore
was screened
to remove the fine, dusty parts before
charging into the
furnace. At a few of the later
furnaces, up-draft kilns,
patterned somewhat after lime kilns,
were employed for
roasting the ore, as a more uniform
product was ob-
tained. Through calcination, about 16
per cent volatile
matter was eliminated, limonites and
siderites were
changed to hematites, and usually the
texture of the ore
was rendered more open and porous,
inducing ease of
reduction in the furnace. From two to
five men were
constantly employed in the work.
Throughout the Hanging Rock District
the Vanport
or "Gray" limestone furnished
nearly all of the flux for
iron smelting. The stone was of good
quality for such
work, was exposed conveniently for
quarrying, and out-
cropped along the main line of
furnaces. The quarrying
operations were crude, because the
quantity of stone
used was small. Hand labor was employed
in stripping
the stone, in drilling the holes for
shooting, and in break-
ing up the stone for hauling. While
many of the fur-
naces had limestone convenient, others
were not so for-
tunate and had to haul their flux from
five to 15 miles.
Influence
on Early Development of Ohio Valley 95
The
Maxville limestone near the head of the Dever
Valley
in southern Jackson County and near Maxville
in
southwestern Perry County were used to a small ex-
tent.
Keeping the furnace supplied with flux required
the
labors of one man for mining and one man and a
team
for hauling the limestone.
The
average burden or half charge as calculated
from
the practice at many furnaces was:
Ore,
roasted ................. 1000 pounds
Charcoal
.................... 28
bushels
Limestone
................... 62
pounds
The
ore requirement to make one ton of iron was:
2.63
tons (2240 lbs.) raw ore
to yield one ton (2268 lbs.) iron
2.21 tons (2240 lbs.)
calcined ore to yield one ton (2268 lbs.)
iron.
From
the above, the total materials necessary to make
one
ton iron were as follows:
Ore,
roasted .................. 4950 pounds
Charcoal
.................... 137 pounds
Limestone
................... 307
pounds
The
yearly requirement for the production of 3,000
tons
of iron was accordingly:
Ore,
raw 7,888 tons (2240 1bs. each)
Charcoal 411,000 bushels or 11,370 cord wood
Limestone 411 tons (2240 lbs. each)
FURNACE
OPERATION
The
operation of the furnace alone required from
20
to 40 men. The one of most importance was the
general
manager who had charge not only of the fur-
nace,
but also of the timber and ore properties. He was
96
Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
always respected and in many cases was
really a big
man in ability and in human interest.
Directly, the
operation of the furnace was in charge
of the foundry-
man or blower. His duty was to see that
the furnace
was properly charged with ore,
charcoal, and limestone;
that the slag was flushed and disposed
of; and that the
furnace was in good repair. Some of
these men were
very able in their work and eventually
moved up to simi-
lar positions in the more modern
furnaces. The duties
of the two engineers for day and night
turn were to
look after the engine and the boilers.
The charging of
stock took from five to nine men,
depending upon how
much screening of ore and charcoal and
breaking of
limestone was done at the furnace. A
keeper and a helper
on each turn opened the furnace for the
discharge of
iron and slag and regulated the
air-pressure. The labor
in the cast house required the work of
three to five men.
Here the iron was cast into pigs,
sanded while hot,
quenched with water, and then carried
to the cart or
tram-car. The pig beds and runner were
also made up
preparatory for the next cast. One man
with a horse
and cart was employed to remove the
slag from the cast
house. Usually from two to four men
were used on the
yard in piling iron, in loading wagons,
in supplying sand
and clay for the furnace, and in
cleaning up the yard.
At most of the furnaces, the company
maintained a store
which required from two to three clerks
and which car-
ried a stock of foods, hardware,
clothing, and feed. The
office force, from one to two men, kept
the books of the
furnace, paid off the workmen, and kept
the record of
the stock used at the furnace. Others
regularly em-
ployed were blacksmiths, carpenters and
a crib tender.
Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley 97 MARKET FOR LOCAL SUPPLIES These charcoal furnaces provided a ready market for the food supplies for man and beast raised on the farms in the adjacent areas, as the furnace lands were gener- ally poor and were used chiefly for timber raising to provide charcoal. As previously stated, the usual re- |
|
quirement of a charcoal furnace was 100 men and 50 yoke of oxen. This meant a total of nearly 500 people in the community and these people had to be fed mainly by supplies obtained elsewhere than on the furnace lands. Along with the working cattle, there were cows, hogs, chickens, and dogs that increased the demand for suste- Vol. XLII--7 |
98
Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
nance. To this end the farms supplied
grains, wheat,
and buckwheat for flour and corn for
meal; fruits, such
as apples, peaches, pears, and plums;
vegetables, such as
potatoes, tomatoes, turnips, cabbage,
and beans; meats,
both fresh and cured; and other
products; such as butter,
eggs, cheese, sorghum, and sauerkraut.
For the stock
the yield of the soil consisted largely
of corn, fats, hay,
and fodder.
Through such ready markets, with the
fair prices
maintained, considerable money was made
by the farm-
ers living within marketing range of
the furnaces in the
Hanging Rock District and located on
the better lands
of the Ohio, Big Sandy, Little Sandy,
Scioto, Little
Scioto, and Hocking Rivers and of Pine,
Symmes, Rac-
coon, and Salt Creeks. In fact, this
was the period of
real prosperity in these areas. Most of
the farmers
built comfortable homes and substantial
farm buildings,
kept the land well cultivated, and
accumulated modest
savings that eventually entered many
channels of educa-
tion, agriculture, industry, and trade.
SHIPMENT BY RIVER
All the iron made by the charcoal
furnaces of the
Hanging Rock Iron District from 1818 to
1856, except
small quantities used locally, was
shipped by way of the
Ohio River, because this was the only
artery for distri-
bution. The shipment included the
substantial outputs
of over 40 of the 69 furnaces. The
yearly tonnage of
these furnaces varied from 2,000 to
3,000 tons each with
a mean of not far from 2,500 tons. The
aggregate an-
nual shipment was thus around 100,000
tons. Charcoal
iron was marketed mainly in Cincinnati
and Pittsburgh,
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 99
but some of it went to the foundries
and rolling mills in
Portsmouth, Maysville, Louisville, St.
Louis, and New
Orleans. Not only was iron shipped out
of the district
by boat, but large quantities of
supplies for the furnaces
came in by water. This included much of
the food for
man and beast, and nearly all of the
clothing, hardware,
boots and shoes, and incidentals.
Cincinnati and Pitts-
burgh were the main supply points,
because the whole-
sale houses there were prepared to
handle such trade.
The iron was carried to the markets by
various means.
Small orders were shipped by
passenger-boats or by flat-
boats, and keel-boats, which simply
floated down the
river. In fact, these were the only
means of transporta-
tion at that time. Later when towboats
and barges
came in, all the large orders were
carried to their desti-
nations by the more efficient methods
of transportation.
Even after the advent of the railroad
into the area
(1856), the river carriers still
received a fair proportion
of the furnace trade. Thus, when fully
considered, the
charcoal furnaces in the Hanging Rock
Iron District
were an important factor in the establishment
of river
transportation and in its development
to a high efficiency.
Boating on the Ohio River during these
days was prof-
itable.
FURNACES AND RAILROADS
The first railroads in the Hanging Rock
Iron District
were planned for the transportation of
iron from the
furnaces to the Ohio River whence it
was taken by boats
to the markets. In Lawrence County on
the Ohio side
of the river, the Iron Railroad, only
13 miles long, was
built from Ironton to Center Furnace by
the owners of
charcoal furnaces along the route. It
began active oper-
100
Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications
ations in 1851 and served Olive,
Buckhorn, Mount Ver-
non, Center, Lawrence, Etna, Vesuvius,
and Lagrange
furnaces. In 1883 it was connected at
Center Station
with the Cincinnati, Hamilton and
Dayton from Wells-
ton which gathered iron from Latrobe,
Buckeye, Key-
stone, Limestone, Madison, and Gallia
furnaces. Later
the old Iron Railroad became a part of
the Detroit,
Toledo and Ironton. On the Kentucky
side a similar
railroad was built in 1867 from Grayson
to the Ohio
River at Greenup. It furnished
transportation for Pac-
tolus, Hunnewell, Laurel, Pennsylvania,
Argillite, and
Buffalo furnaces.
The Scioto and Hocking Valley Railroad,
which
after several changes passed to the
control of the Balti-
more and Ohio system, began train
service between
Portsmouth and Jackson in October,
1853. It was
routed to accommodate Scioto, Jackson,
and Bloom fur-
naces and its building was a stimulus
for the rapid erec-
tion, 1853 to 1856, of Pioneer,
Washington, Monroe,
Cambria, Jefferson, Madison, and
Limestone furnaces.
The completion of the main line of the
Marietta and Cin-
cinnati Railroad, now the Baltimore and
Ohio, in 1856,
led directly to the erection, between 1853
and 1858, of
Hope, Zaleski, Vinton, Hamden, Eagle,
and Cincinnati
furnaces in central and southern Vinton
County. All
the railroads built in the area before
1860 were either
influenced directly by the charcoal
furnace trade or they
were responsible for the building of
other furnaces
where their lines passed through the
ore fields. Thus,
with the railroads and with the
charcoal iron industry
in the Hanging Rock Iron District, each
played a promi-
nent part in the development of the
other.
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 101
LOCATION OF ROADS
Through the charcoal furnaces, hauling
of some
product or other originated in all
parts of the Hanging
Rock Iron District. Charcoal, ore, and
limestone were
gathered from every part of the furnace
lands and also
from many adjacent properties. Nearly
all the pig iron
was transported by wagon either to the
Ohio River or
to the railroads for shipment to the
markets. Food sup-
plies were collected from various sources
over a wide
area. Most of this was hauled by wagon.
The region
was thus thoroughly traversed by roads,
varying in
character from the sled roads through
the coalings to
those highly worn by travel. Naturally
the ones used
extensively were those with the most
direct route, with
the least resistance as to hills, with
the most firm foun-
dations, and with the best
accommodations for the fur-
naces and the people. Main arteries of
travel were soon
established and today these, with few
exceptions, still
retain their importance as both
regional and local thor-
oughfares. The charcoal furnaces
definitely established
the road system of the area.
SOCIAL LIFE
In general, the life throughout the entire Hanging
Rock Iron District was very much the
same, as the
people were doing like things, that is
chopping wood,
burning charcoal, digging ore, making
iron, and driving
teams. To some extent, however, each
furnace became
a center of a particular social unit,
due to the kind of
people congregating there, to the
clustering of the people
near the furnace, to the main arteries
of travel centering
at that place, and to a certain loyalty
of the people for
102 Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications their particular community. The people were quite ac- tive socially and had many gatherings of the types fol- lowed during the furnace days. The school, located near the furnace, was used not only for educational pur- poses, but for spelling bees, by travelling shows, and by music teachers. Often the schoolhouse was used as a |
|
voting booth. Each furnace center had at least one church with services by either a resident or an itinerant minister. Sunday school, prayer meeting, and socials were also held there. The favorite loafing place of eve- nings was the furnace store where all subjects from running the government to who had the best hound dog were regularly discussed. The country dance was then |
Influence on Early Development of
Ohio Valley 103
at its height. These usually took place
at some of the
favorite homes with an old-time fiddler
or two to fur-
nish the music. "Coon" and
fox hunting were common
sports of the day and occasioned much
rivalry for the
best dog. Often each furnace had a
"bully" who pro-
claimed himself champion of the region
and was willing
to fight for such glory. Each year the
large circuses vis-
ited the main towns in the district. A
circus was an
important event, necessitating a
complete suspension of
all operations at the furnaces. On the
whole, the social
life at the charcoal furnaces was
original in many ways
and of a wholesome nature.
EFFECTS OF ABANDONMENT OF FURNACES
The closing down and abandonment of
these old
charcoal furnaces caused a marked
change in the entire
area. In only a few places were other
industries intro-
duced to take their places. The furnace
people were
thus forced to leave for other fields
of employment.
Many furnace tracts, formerly
supporting from 300 to
500 people, now have only an
impoverished remnant,
often not more than a few families. The
entire aspect
has changed; the furnace is now only a
crumbled ruin;
most of the dwellings are gone or in a
state of decay;
the church and school, even if
standing, show long neg-
lect, and the furnace lands are
deserted by the axman,
miner, collier, and teamster. The area
formerly supply-
ing an active industry of much value is
now devoted to
grazing land or to a timber or mineral
reserve. The
value of the property has thus changed
radically and its
ability to support people has decreased
tremendously.
These tracts are now on the tax
duplicate at low figures
104 Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications and, therefore, produce little revenue to support the county. The progress is backward and not forward. The charcoal furnaces of the Hanging Rock Iron District thus had a marked influence on the region as a whole. They led to a rapid development of the area, to a rather thorough dissemination of the people over the entire field, to trade activities, both local and re- |
|
gional, to a hastening of efficient river transportation, to the introduction of railroads into the area, to the permanent location of major highways, and to a rather definite type of social life. The decline and abandon- ment of the furnaces has led to a decided retrogression, with a decline in population and in wealth and in the various activities which marked the prosperous days of the furnaces. |
THE CHARCOAL IRON INDUSTRY OF THE
HANGING ROCK IRON DISTRICT--ITS IN-
FLUENCE ON THE EARLY DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE OHIO VALLEY
BY WILBUR STOUT
INTRODUCTION
The Hanging Rock Iron District, as
defined by the
iron masters, embraced the furnaces and
furnace lands
and also the adjacent properties over
which iron ores,
limestones, and charcoal were gathered.
It included
parts of Carter, Boyd and Greenup
Counties, Kentucky,
and parts of Lawrence, Scioto, Gallia,
Jackson, Vinton
and Hocking Counties, Ohio.
The district has an elliptical shape, a
length of more
than 100 miles, a maximum width of 28
miles, and a
trend of 18 degrees east of north,
which is close to that
of the strike of the rock strata. The
area grew by ex-
pansion along the outcrop of the ore
beds as the lines of
transportation were pushed farther and
farther out
from the original means, the Ohio
River. Within this
field all the raw materials necessary
for the smelting of
charcoal iron were provided by nature
in abundant
quantity.
The area south of the Ohio River was
roughly 510
square miles and that north of this
stream 1,290 square
miles. The district, in 1875, included
69 charcoal
furnaces and 16 coal or coke furnaces,
the latter repre-
(72)