DIALECT DISTRIBUTION AND SETTLEMENT
PATTERNS
IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION
by ALVA L. DAVIS
Assistant Professor of English,
Western Reserve University
The study of dialect distribution in
the eastern United States
and in the secondary settlement areas
of the Great Lakes Region
has now reached a point where it is
possible to show some interesting
correlations between the linguistic
features and the settlement
patterns of these regions. It is
simple, perhaps even obvious, to say
that when large, homogeneous groups of
people migrate to new
territories, they take with them the
speech patterns of their old
communities and that these speech
patterns will be gradually modi-
fied as various cultural influences are
brought to bear on them.
However, the validity of any
correlation depends upon a solid
foundation of extensive and painstaking
research, rather than on
generalities, and for this particular
problem, such research materials
are provided by the collections of the Linguistic
Atlas of the United
States and Canada.1
The Linguistic Atlas, which
proposes to be a comprehensive
survey of American English, was begun
in 1931 under the director-
ship of Professor Hans Kurath, then at
Brown University. In that
year the first of the regional atlases,
The Linguistic Atlas of New
England, got under way. Upon completion of the records for New
England, field work was extended to the
Middle Atlantic and South
Atlantic states and these records were
finally completed during the
spring of 1949. The Linguistic Atlas
of New England2 has been
published, and the Middle Atlantic and
South Atlantic materials
1 This paper is limited to a discussion
of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
For an account of the Wisconsin data,
see Frederic G. Cassidy, "Some New England
Words in Wisconsin," Language, XVII
(1941), 324-339. The name "Great Lakes
Region" has been applied to this
area.
Other articles based on Atlas field
work in the region are Albert H. Marck-
wardt, "Folk Speech in Indiana and
Adjacent States," Indiana Historical Bulletin,
XVII (1940), 120-140; "Middle
English o in the American English of the Great
Lakes Area," Papers of the
Michigan Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, XXVI
(1941), 56-71; "Middle English WA
in the Speech of the Great Lakes Region,"
American Speech, XVII (1942), 226-254.
2 Hans Kurath, ed. (6 vols., Providence,
1939-43).
48
Dialect Distribution in the Great
Lakes Region 49
are on file at the University of
Michigan, where they are to be
edited and prepared for publication.
The technique employed by the Linguistic
Atlas is modeled
upon the personal interview methods
developed by European lingu-
ists. After a careful analysis of the
geography and history of the
region to be surveyed, the director of
the project plots the com-
munities for investigation. These
communities are spaced so as to
furnish a balanced sampling of speech
forms in the area, the number
of the communities varying with the
complexity of the region. A
trained phonetician then visits each
community and interviews native
speakers, asking several hundred
standardized questions designed to
bring out regional and social
differences in dialect. Each interview
requires about eight hours and is
conducted in such a way that
the informant uses his normal
pronunciation, grammar, and vocab-
ulary. According to the plan of the Linguistic
Atlas, two speakers
are chosen from each community, one a
representative of the oldest
generation with relatively little
education, and another of the middle
age group (ordinarily from fifty to
sixty years old) with con-
siderably more formal education and
wider social contacts. Oc-
casionally college educated informants
are interviewed to represent
the cultured speech of the area. In the
eastern states-from Maine
to Florida--over 1,600 field interviews
have been completed. The
geographical spacing of the communities
permits the plotting of
the informants' responses on maps so
that regional dissemination
of speech forms can be related to
topographical, historical, and
cultural influences. By using
informants from different age groups
and from varying social backgrounds
much useful data can be ob-
tained about innovation, obsolescence,
and prestige values of speech
forms.
Since 1937 The Linguistic Atlas of
the North Central States,
under the supervision of Professor
Albert H. Marckwardt of the
University of Michigan, has been making
steady progress.3 Work
in this region was begun with an
exploratory survey of Ohio, In-
3 This
atlas includes the five states named above (footnote 1) plus Kentucky.
The research in this area has been made
possible by grants from the Rackham Founda-
tion of the University of Michigan, from
the University of Illinois, University of
Wisconsin, Western Reserve University,
Ohio State University, and the Ohio State
Archaeological and Historical Society.
50 Ohio State
Archaeological and Historical Quarterly
diana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and
Michigan, limited to ten field records
in each state. This initial survey was
completed in 1940 and the
project was then expanded to cover from fifty to
seventy records per
state. The additional field work has
already been done in Wisconsin
and Michigan and is currently being
carried on in Illinois and Ohio.
The historical background for dialect
distribution in the Great
Lakes Region is well known. The
settlement patterns for Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan are
easily traced, partly because the
region is new, comparatively speaking,
and partly because a wealth
of information on the subject is
available.4 Three main streams of
migration entered the area. The
southernmost and earliest of these
used the Ohio River system and peopled
the lands within easy reach
of the river and its tributaries. This
group of settlers was for the
most part from the Middle Atlantic
states and the hill regions of
the old slave states. In the north the
important avenue of approach
was the Great Lakes. Although some New
Englanders, following
Moses Cleaveland's party of 1796, had
settled in the Connecticut
Western Reserve, the opening of the
Erie Canal in 1825 started the
great land rush into that area, made up
principally of Yankees
from New York state. This migration,
which reached its peak in
the 1840's and 1850's, completed the
settlement of the Ohio counties
bordering Lake Erie and filled up most
of Michigan and northern
Illinois. The third general migration
was the overland movement,
especially along the National Road. The
Conestoga wagon carried
Pennsylvanians into Ohio and westward,
and Buckeyes and Hoosiers
themselves joined in this search for
cheap land.
Within the Great Lakes Region are two
important small areas
distinctive in the composition of their
population: in southeastern
Ohio, the Marietta colony, founded in
1788 by the Ohio Company,
from Massachusetts, and in northwestern
Illinois, the Lead Region
settled in the 1820's by miners from
all parts of the country.5
4 Information concerning settlement is
available in such works as Frederic L.
Paxson, History of the American
Frontier 1763-1893 (Boston, 1924); Lois K.
Mathews, The Expansion of New England
(Boston, 1909); Beverley W. Bond, Jr.,
The Foundations of Ohio (History of
the State of Ohio, edited by Carl
Wittke, I,
Columbus, 1942); Solon J. Buck, Illinois
in 1818 (Springfield, 1917). Tables I and
VII, U. S. Census, 1870: Population, are
of great value for determining the geo-
graphical extent of these settlements.
5 The Lead Region also includes
southwestern Wisconsin. See Cassidy, loc. cit.,
Dialect Distribution in the Great
Lakes Region 51
Even though much field work is still to
be done in the Great
Lakes Region, the present data is
adequate for a preliminary com-
parison to the Eastern findings. The
handiest material for such a
comparison is the folk vocabulary, the
everyday words of life around
the house and farm.
On the basis of the vocabulary variants
of the Eastern Atlas
records, Professor Kurath has
discovered three main dialect areas,6
differing considerably from the traditional
three-fold Eastern,
Southern, and General American
classification.7 The Eastern records
show a Northern area including New
England, New York, the
northern half of New Jersey and
approximately the northern quarter
of Pennsylvania; a Midland area including
the rest of Pennsylvania
and New Jersey, parts of Delaware and
Maryland, and the moun-
tainous South, beginning at the Blue
Ridge; and a Southern area
consisting of the coastal South from
Delaware to Florida.
None of these areas is completely
uniform, but divided into
several subareas. The North is composed
of Eastern New England
(roughly from the Connecticut River)
Western New England
and Upstate New York, the Hudson
Valley, and metropolitan New
York. The Midland may be divided
conveniently into two large
subareas: North Midland for most of
Pennsylvania and northern
West Virginia, and South Midland for
the speech of the mountain
area to the south. The South
(identified most easily by loss of post-
vocalic r) contains many subareas, many
of them centering around
such cities as Richmond, Charleston,
and Savannah.
The general patterns which folk terms
make in the Great Lakes
Region are shown on the accompanying
map.8 The "Yankee" settle-
ment is consistent in using Northern
words, and the area to the
south of it is almost without exception
Midland. Between the two
326. Foreign population settlements,
such as that at Holland, Michigan, may be of
importance but our present data shows
little permanent influence on American
English in this area.
A Word Geography of the Eastern
United States (Ann Arbor, 1949). This
work gives a detailed explanation of the
Eastern areas, with helpful maps.
7 George Philip Krapp, The English
Language in America (2 vols., New York,
1925), I, 35-42.
8 The
atlas records have been augmented by a correspondence questionnaire
given to 233 informants in these four states. See Alva
L. Davis, A Word Atlas of
the Great Lakes Region (unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan,
1948). It should be noted that most of
the information thus far obtained is from
the older age group.
Dialect Distribution in the Great
Lakes Region 53
major areas, some smaller transition
areas of mixed usage occur.9
The Lead Region of northwestern
Illinois reflects its different
settlement history by the retention of
many Midland forms, and the
Marietta region retains many
Yankeeisms.10
The following words, arranged according
to their Eastern
distributions, may be used to
demonstrate the folk vocabulary dif-
ferences in the Great Lakes Region:
NORTHERN WORDS
A. GENERAL NORTH:
pail; swill, 'food for hogs'; comforter, 'tied quilt'; johnnycake;
whiffletree; boss!, 'call to cows'; angleworm; (devil's) darning
needle, 'dragonfly'; sick to his stomach
B. HUDSON VALLEY:
stoop, 'small porch'; sugar bush, 'sugar maple grove';
coal scuttle
C. THE NORTH EXCEPT THE HUDSON VALLEY:
spider, 'cast-iron frying pan'; dutch cheese, 'cottage
cheese'; fills,
'shafts of a buggy'; nan(nie)! and
co-day!, 'calls to sheep';
curtains, 'roller shades'; scaffold, 'improvised platform
for hay';
rowen, 'second crop of hay'
D. WESTERN NEW ENGLAND AND UPSTATE NEW YORK:
fried-cakes, 'baking powder doughnuts'; loppered milk, 'thick,
sour milk'; hard maple, 'sugar
maple tree'
This group of words, as a whole, is
limited to northern Ohio,
Michigan and northern Illinois, with
rare instances in the Midland
area. Those words restricted to
subareas of the East--as in B, C, D--
do not make any definite geographical
patterns within the Great
Lakes Northern area, though further
research may show that some
new subareas are to be set up.11 Most
conspicuous is the fact that
many of these words are becoming
old-fashioned, being supplanted
9 Raven I. McDavid, Jr. and Alva L.
Davis, "Northwestern Ohio: a Transition
Area," Language, XXVI
(1950), 264-273, is a preliminary study of one of these
areas.
10 Among
the Yankee terms in the Marietta area are pail, swill, dutch cheese,
boss!, and angleworm. In the Lead Region are found roasting
ears, sook!, and
fishworm.
11 Sewing needle, 'dragonfly,' for example, is current in the Upper
Peninsula
of Michigan and in the Duluth area of
Minnesota.
54
Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly
by words of wider regional and national
usage, or being forgotten
with changes in customs. Johnnycake is
a childhood memory for
many speakers, dutch cheese and fried-cakes
are now cottage
cheese and doughnuts most commonly, the whiffletree
(sometimes
whippletree) and the fills (or thills) are of little
use in a tractor
and automobile age, the old spider is
likely to be an aluminum frying
pan, and the more fashionable term window
shades is taking the
place of curtains. Rarest on
this list are scaffold, rowen, and loppered
milk (sometimes lobbered milk): the general terms
are loft or mow
-the improvised platform is now a
permanent structure in the
modern barn-second cutting, and sour
milk.
MIDLAND WORDS
A. GENERAL MIDLAND:
quarter till (eleven); blinds, 'roller shades'; skillet; dip, 'sweet
sauce for pudding'; sook!, 'call to
cows'; sheepy!; fish(ing)
worm; snake feeder, 'dragonfly'; poison vine, 'poison ivy'; belling,
'noisy celebration after a wedding'
B. NORTH MIDLAND:
spouting, 'guttering at edges of roof'; smearcase, 'cottage
cheese';
hay doodles, 'small piles of hay in the field'; sugar camp, 'sugar
maple grove'; baby buggy
C. SOUTH MIDLAND:
fire board, 'mantlepiece'; clabbered milk, 'thick, sour
milk';
trestle, 'implement to hold planks for sawing'
D. SOUTH MIDLAND AND SOUTH:
evening, 'afternoon'; light-bread, 'white bread'; clabbered
cheese,
'cottage cheese'; hay shocks, 'small
piles of hay in the field';
nicker, 'noise made by horse at feeding time'
E. MIDLAND AND SOUTH:
dog irons, 'andirons'; bucket; slop, 'food for hogs'; comfort,
'tied quilt'; pully bone, 'wishbone';
corn pone, 'corn bread';
cherry seed; butter beans, 'lima beans'; roasting ears, 'corn-on-
the-cob'; singletree; polecat;
granny woman, 'midwife'; Christ-
mas gift!, 'familiar greeting at Christmas time'
NOTE--No terms limited to the South are
common in this region.
Dialect Distribution in the Great
Lakes Region 55
The General Midland words are in common
use in the Ohio
Valley, though poison vine is
obsolescent, and blinds may be. Belling
is now common only in Ohio and
scatteringly in northern Indiana
and southern Michigan; it has been
replaced in most of the area by
shivaree, the most common term in the Middle West.12
The North Midland contains many
expressions which are
common only in Ohio; some of them have
spread into Indiana (es-
pecially the northern part of the
state), and occasionally they are
found in Illinois. Spouting is
restricted to Ohio, hay doodle is old-
fashioned in Ohio and Indiana and very
rare in Illinois, sugar camp
is most common in Ohio and Indiana, and
smearcase is common in
Ohio, Indiana, and most of Illinois (clabbered
cheese is fairly com-
mon in southern Illinois and Indiana).
These North Midland
words as a group form an irergular
wedge-like pattern: generally
current in Ohio, occasional in Indiana,
and rare in Illinois. The
Upper Ohio Valley may be the home of baby
buggy, which is now
the most usual of the words for the
perambulator in all of the Great
Lakes Region. It is, of course, a trade
term, and therefore little
affected by settlement patterns. The Dictionary
of American English
gives 1852 as the first date for baby
wagon, the earliest of the terms.
The South Midland has few terms of its
own; in vocabulary
it seems to be a transition zone
between the North Midland and the
South. Words typical of the region are
those listed, along with
sugar orchard; ridy horse, 'seesaw'; pack, 'carry'; and favor, 're-
semble.' None of these words is
especially common in this region,
but they are most frequent in the
southern portion.
Words common to large parts of the
South and the South
Midland are well represented in the
Great Lakes Midland and for
this reason these terms have been
included with the Midland group.
They seem to be slightly less common in
Ohio than in Indiana and
Illinois, further differentiating these
subareas. Light-bread, for
example, is only fairly common in Ohio,
but is the prevailing term
of southern Indiana and southern
Illinois. Nicker has probably spread
from the Virginia Piedmont; it is
common in the entire Great Lakes
Midland, even spreading into southern
Michigan.
12 See McDavid and Davis,
"'Shivaree': an Example of Cultural Diffusion,"
American Speech, XXIV (1949), 249-255.
56
Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly
The words shared by the Midland and the
South are also well
distributed in the Great Lakes Midland,
but many are becoming
old-fashioned. Dog irons become
the modern 'andirons,' corn pone,
like Northern johnnycake, has
yielded to store-bought bread, the
general term skunk occurs
alongside polecat, and few communities
have a granny woman to deliver
the babies. Christmas gift!, usually
a children's greeting, is rather rare
in the region, but information
is not sufficient to tell whether it
was ever more widely used here.
The evidence of regional
differentiation shows, in this com-
parison, surprisingly little
disturbance of the "expected" dialect
patterns, in spite of the steady
leveling influences of national ad-
vertising, ease in transportation with
its resultant mobility of popu-
lation, intermarriage, and changes in
modes of living. These in-
fluences have tended to blur some
regional differences, but the
vocabulary of everyday usage is so
extremely conservative that there
is far from complete uniformity. As yet
there is no indication that
trade and culture centers have
developed distinctive dialect areas
as has happened in the case of Boston
and some Southern cities.13
The dialect information makes, instead,
a faithful reconstruction
of the settlement patterns. The
significance of this historical com-
parison, even in its present
incompleteness, is that speech habits are
brought into the realm of historical
fact-the usage of the word
spider, for example, becomes as real as the use of the Cape
Cod
lighter or the hip-roofed barn.
13 Tonic, 'soda-pop,' is one of
the terms current in the Boston trade area. The
prestige of Boston pronunciation is well
known.
DIALECT DISTRIBUTION AND SETTLEMENT
PATTERNS
IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION
by ALVA L. DAVIS
Assistant Professor of English,
Western Reserve University
The study of dialect distribution in
the eastern United States
and in the secondary settlement areas
of the Great Lakes Region
has now reached a point where it is
possible to show some interesting
correlations between the linguistic
features and the settlement
patterns of these regions. It is
simple, perhaps even obvious, to say
that when large, homogeneous groups of
people migrate to new
territories, they take with them the
speech patterns of their old
communities and that these speech
patterns will be gradually modi-
fied as various cultural influences are
brought to bear on them.
However, the validity of any
correlation depends upon a solid
foundation of extensive and painstaking
research, rather than on
generalities, and for this particular
problem, such research materials
are provided by the collections of the Linguistic
Atlas of the United
States and Canada.1
The Linguistic Atlas, which
proposes to be a comprehensive
survey of American English, was begun
in 1931 under the director-
ship of Professor Hans Kurath, then at
Brown University. In that
year the first of the regional atlases,
The Linguistic Atlas of New
England, got under way. Upon completion of the records for New
England, field work was extended to the
Middle Atlantic and South
Atlantic states and these records were
finally completed during the
spring of 1949. The Linguistic Atlas
of New England2 has been
published, and the Middle Atlantic and
South Atlantic materials
1 This paper is limited to a discussion
of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
For an account of the Wisconsin data,
see Frederic G. Cassidy, "Some New England
Words in Wisconsin," Language, XVII
(1941), 324-339. The name "Great Lakes
Region" has been applied to this
area.
Other articles based on Atlas field
work in the region are Albert H. Marck-
wardt, "Folk Speech in Indiana and
Adjacent States," Indiana Historical Bulletin,
XVII (1940), 120-140; "Middle
English o in the American English of the Great
Lakes Area," Papers of the
Michigan Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, XXVI
(1941), 56-71; "Middle English WA
in the Speech of the Great Lakes Region,"
American Speech, XVII (1942), 226-254.
2 Hans Kurath, ed. (6 vols., Providence,
1939-43).
48