LORI D. GINZBERG
Women in an Evangelical Community:
Oberlin 1835-1850
Women and men joined the first
coeducational college in order
to create both a model Christian
community and trained missionaries
for the world's enlightenment and
regeneration.' Oberlin College was
not a "feminist" experiment,
for the concept of feminism did not truly
exist. It was an evangelical project,
in which women were an integral
part. An understanding of why certain
women came to Oberlin and
what they found there may illuminate
the ways women found to satisfy
the demands placed upon them. It is not
useful to merely take signs of
protest as evidence of change in their
lives; change was far more subtle,
and women's experience more complex and
interesting, than measures
of "oppression" indicate.
Religion and commitment to community
were the central focuses in many
women's lives, and thus they must
assume their proper place in the
historical study of American women.2
The interest in Oberlin as a college
obscures its significance as a
religious community. It is in this
latter regard that one gains the most
insight into women's participation.
Oberlin's founders set out for the
frontier in 1833 to create a model
society, one that would demonstrate
true Christian living to what they
termed the "perishing world." Women
Lori D. Ginzberg is a graduate student
in history at Yale University.
1. Oberlin College is frequently
mentioned in connection with women's education
and their struggle for emancipation.
Discussions seek to demonstrate that Oberlin is
either to be praised for being in the
vanguard on these issues or condemned for
hypocrisy. The concept of religious
faith has not been given a central role. Robert
Fletcher pointed out Oberlin's positive
influence on later decisions to educate
women alongside men and saw "joint
education" as a significant step in America's
progress toward sexual equality: Robert
Samuel Fletcher, A History of Oberlin College
From Its Foundation Through the Civil
War, Vol 1 (Oberlin, 1943), 904-09.
Recent
"feminist" writers emphasize
Oberlin's double standard and the "masculine priorities"
with which the experiment was
implemented. See Ronald W. Hogeland, "Coeducation
of the Sexes at Oberlin College: A Study
of Social Ideas in Mid-Nineteenth Century
America," Journal of Social
History, VI (Fall, 1972), 160-71, and Jill Conway,
"Perspective on the History of
Women's Education in the United States," History
of Education Quarterly, XIV (Spring, 1974), 1-12.
2. I object to the view that the clergy
somehow manipulated women into joining
churches out of self-interest. This
ignores the centrality of belief in women's lives,
which was a source of strength as well
as of dependence. See Ann Douglas, The
Feminization of American Culture (New York, 1977).
Evangelical Community 79
were central to this vision. More
significant and unique than secular
education was Oberlin's manner of
applying its ideology to all aspects
of community life. Oberlin affected
women's lives as much by their
participation and role in a cohesive
community as by purely intellectual,
or academic experiences. This community
serves as an example of the
ways in which one group of women
synthesized in their own lives
the conflicting theories regarding their
roles and duties in American
society.
Scholarship on women views the early
nineteenth century as a time
in which roles and expectations were
transformed and articulated. Gerda
Lerner attributes the deterioration of
women's status-from the colonial
period through the 1840s-to the
separation of workplace and home and
the resulting ambiguity concerning
women's contributions to society.
She claims that women did not share in
the egalitarian ideology's
benefits or aspirations.3 There
was a growing idealization of the lady,
who represented, in Barbara Welter's
phrase, "piety, purity, submissive-
ness and domesticity."4 The
cult of domesticity, and of woman's
purifying power, was articulated most
cogently by Catharine Beecher,
and was central to the ideas of ladies'
seminaries, guides to women
teachers, and religious tracts.5 It
is tempting to regard the relegation
of women to a limited sphere as a loss
of social status, and the
glorification of that sphere as an
apology for its constraints. Status,
however, is a difficult thing to
measure. The pioneers of women's
education, and the women themselves,
aspired to no less than purifying
a changing nation through women's moral
influence as wife, mother,
and, increasingly throughout this
period, teacher. Woman, they be-
lieved, would use her moral superiority
for the benefit of all.
The ideal of the morally superior woman
coincided with a theory of
rights. The first feminists claimed
"human rights," which they equated
with political, legal, and economic
equality with men. Women's involve-
ment in movements for temperance, moral
reform, abolition and, later,
women's rights, was unprecedented, both
in number and influence.
The famous correspondence between Sarah
and Angelina Grimke, who
took the human rights position, and
Catharine Beecher, seems to
exemplify the irreconciliable
intellectual differences concerning women's
role and their potential to change
society.6
3. Gerda Lerner, "The Lady and the
Mill Girl," Mid-Continental American States
Journal, IV (1969), 5-12.
4. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of
True Womanhood: 1800-1860," in Dimity
Convictions: The American Woman in
the Nineteenth Century (Athens, Ohio,
1976), 21-41.
5. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine
Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity
(New York, 1976).
6. Sklar, Catharine Beecher, 132-37.
80 OHIO HISTORY
Yet it is best to view these two
theories as opposite sides of the same
problem, for a clear-cut dichotomy of
thought is impossible when
applied to action. Beecher's extension
of women's moral sphere to
teaching, in effect, extended it right
out of the home and into public
conflict, exactly what she disdained in
theory. In contrast, many of
the most noted feminists, in crying for
a woman's "right" to involve
herself in a non-traditional sphere,
used, and believed, the vocabulary
of moral purification to justify their
position. The Grimkes claimed that
women should assert themselves
alongside, but morally superior to,
men in the political realm. Beecher,
disturbed by the influence of
corrupt politics on a
morally-reprehensible society, chose to expand
women's traditional role to create a
"national ethic of domestic virtue."7
Oberlin embodied in microcosm one
solution to the conflicts
presented by the Grimkes and Beecher
and, in turn, demonstrated the
paradoxes involved. Oberlin had a
cohesive ideology and sought to
train "a band of self-denying,
hardy, intelligent, efficient laborers, of
both sexes, for the world's
enlightenment and regeneration."8 Knowl-
edge of the long-term effects of
coeducation on women's "sphere"
should not obscure the founders'
intentions: these women and men had
no pretensions to giving women equality
in the masculine realm, for
they did not approve of this domain for
any of its members. Even as
the dominant American values
increasingly emphasized individual
advancement, the Oberlin community
sought traditional Christian
virtues. The founders relied upon moral
superiority, personal sub-
mission, and individual perfection in
transforming an increasingly
complex society. Oberlin's members
applied to a frontier society the
logical extremes of Beecher's female
virtues. They believed that the
moralistic, domestic approach to reform
would be far more effective
in purifying the world than would
institutional arrangements for
change. Consistent with the
long-standing American zeal for a utopian
society, they chose perfection over
compromise.
Religion formed the basis of life at
Oberlin. One is struck by the
homogeneity of thought and feeling in
the early years. Fletcher notes,
"The seriousmindedness of early
Oberlin is appalling. The consciousness
of a wicked world and an approaching day
of atonement clouded the
spirits of students and teachers. Life
was a serious business and death
was momentarily awaited."9
The founders were deeply committed
members of Congregational and
Presbyterian churches. Their heresy
7. Sklar, Catharine Beecher, 135.
8. "Prudential Report," Oberlin
Evangelist, 3 December 1851.
9. Fletcher, History of Oberlin
College, 24. For a more detailed discussion of
Oberlin theology, see James Fairchild, The
Doctrine of Sanctification at Oberlin (Oberlin
and Boston, 1856).
Evangelical Community 81
lay in their fervent insistence on
compulsory moral action as part of
post-Calvinist doctrine. The most
significant, if gradual, shift from
orthodox Puritanism was in the
interpretation of sin and human will.
Original sin and individual election to
salvation were increasingly at
odds with the peculiarly American
doctrine of individual opportunity
and achievement of status. The new
theology inadvertantly rationalized
and expounded this capitalist ethic.
According to Barbara Zikmund,
it "emphasized man's freedom and
the use of that freedom to improve
the human situation."10 It replaced
the concept of "sin" with that of
"sinning."
Sin increasingly became a positive,
voluntary, and individual act.
Society, a mere collection of
individuals, was evil or pure directly
because of human behavior. This implies
potential sinlessness. Helen
Cowles was "led to wonder how the
Lord can spare the people of
the United States, when they are such a nation
of hard-hearted sinners. "
However, as Whitney Cross notes,
"The dogma of American democ-
racy, vigourously rising in Jacksonian
days, contained a supreme
optimism, a belief in the ultimate
perfection of society through
progressive improvement in
humankind."11 This deep optimism explains
the vigor with which evangelicals strove
for social perfection, which
they believed was possible, if not
inevitable, through their efforts at
molding individuals.
Women, Cross believed, should dominate a
history of revivalism.
Similar conditions of status and
expectation existed for women in all
parts of the United States. It was in
western New York, however,
where the most intense period of
religious revivalism occurred, that
Oberlin and its ideology originated. In
contrast to this area, the
western frontier provided women with a
life of too little leisure
and too much drudgery to inspire so much
religious energy. In the
East, religion rarely served as a
fulltime occupation; if there was not
more "status" in the larger
cities, at least there were more non-religious
activities to fill women's days.
"Woman," Cross stated, "made a
nearly exclusive avocation of religion.
. . . Perhaps only in the middle
stretch of just-matured society, and
within the belt of Yankee migration,
could she attain the maximum
concentration upon this one type of
expression. Unconscious desires found
outlet in revivals and in the
busy campaigns for reforming
crusades." 12 Harriet Martineau, starting
10. Barbara Zikmund, "Asa Mahan and
Oberlin Perfectionism" (unpub. Ph.D.
thesis, Duke University, 1969), 16.
11. Helen M. Cowles, journal entry, 17
May 1849, Grace Victorious, Oberlin College
Special Collections (OCSC), Mudd
Learning Center, Oberlin, OH; Whitney Cross,
The Burned-Over District (New York, 1965), 199.
12. Cross, Burned-Over District, 89.
He discusses women's role in revivalist religion
on pages 84-90.
82 OHIO HISTORY
her two-year tour of the United States
in 1834, remarked, "The
way in which religion is made an
occupation by women, testifies
not only to the vacuity which must exist
. . .but to the vigour with
which the religious sentiment would
probably be carried into the great
objects and occupations of life, if such
were permitted."13 Anxious
to save society, Oberlin's founders
implicitly recognized this potential
energy.
Oberlin's particular doctrine was, above
all, one of moral action.
Belief and human will were synthesized
in the Scriptural verse, "Show
me thy faith without thy works/And I
will show thee my faith by
my works."14 A dissatisfaction
with the world, an intense desire for
a cohesive community, and a faith in
their ability to perfect society
by persuasion distinguished its members.
They perceived themselves
not as escapists from a changing
society, but as activists bent on
demonstrating a model for that society's
instruction. All agreed that
individual action lay at the root of
social evil, and all members
committed themselves to converting the
world and recreating it in
Oberlin's image.
Women at Oberlin believed in perfectionism
as devoutly as did
men, sharing equally painful conversion
experiences and senses of
religious inadequacy. Girlhood was
directly associated with the "em-
brace of piety with qualities of
submission and humility."15 They
tried to submit to God's will and urged
others to do the same. It is
far too simple to adopt the view that
religion blinded women to
their social positions or to doubt the
authenticity of beliefs that
made certain options available to them.
Religion provided the sphere
through which women expressed both
frustration and the desire to
perpetuate the values of family and
community. Nineteenth century
"feminized" religion called
upon women to act, to exert themselves
as morally superior agents in a sinful
world. Traditional Christian
virtues formed the basis of a theology
of social activism; women,
as the embodiment of these virtues, were
compelled to demonstrate
its viability.
James Fairchild's two arguments in
support of coeducation were
that women should be educated as human
beings, and that they would
be a "civilizing influence" on
men in public life. If female virtues
were to change the world, a society had
to be created in which their
moral influence would be strong. Oberlin
was to be that society.
Attributes that capitalist America
associated with female weakness
13. Harriet Martineau, Society in
America, abr., ed. by Seymour Martin Lipset
(Garden City, N.Y., 1962), 342.
14. James 2:18.
15. Joseph Kett, Rites of
Passage (New York, 1977), 75.
Evangelical Community 83 |
|
were aspired to by Oberlin men as well. One's place in the world and in God's eyes was not predetermined but earned through denouncing sin. Similarly, the world itself was not doomed, but was to be saved by human effort. "Equality" was an irrelevant concept, as all people who strove for sanctification were equally submissive to God. Assertion of "right" on earth would involve ego and material needs which were seen as corrupting. Women, it was believed, were not subject to such desires. The concept of woman as a civilizing influence did not mean that women were brought in to Oberlin on a pretext of superiority to "serve" men, do laundry, or become wives. They came, as did the men, to fulfill a moral mission. Without women, Oberlin would have been simply another college. With women, it completed its primary function-the creation of a good society that would show the world the harmony and virtue of Christian living. In its economic, social, and labor relations, the Oberlin community represented a society based on familial functions, with women at its moral center extending their influence through the community to the outside world. The emphasis on an isolated, close-knit community places Oberlin within the general movement for utopian societies in the 1830s, created, like others, by the interplay of social change and social |
84 OHIO HISTORY
optimism.16 The sense of closeness
came more from shared values
than from a long-term proximity on the
part of its members. Nancy
Prudden, upon arriving in Oberlin in
1837, remarked, "The sisters
all seem to love one another and of
course are happy." Ann Gillett
recalled that, at Oberlin, "All is
peace, love, harmony and good will."17
This sense of closeness existed even
though many students spent only
brief periods of time there. The student
body fluctuated considerably.
Ann Harris returned to Oberlin in 1843
after a visit home to find few
familiar faces. "I feel almost like
a stranger here," she wrote. 18
The bond between Oberlin students was
one of shared values of
community life. The ladies in the
Boarding House lived in close
and frequently crowded conditions,
sharing classes, recitations, prayer
and society meetings, meals, and
domestic chores. The homogeneity
and fervor of their beliefs, as well as
the common bond of economic
difficulties, made Oberlin much more
than a college, and its influence
extended well beyond the period they
actually attended.
Oberlin, then, was a utopian community
that included an educational
institution. Its founders, however, were
not committed to women's
education as an abstract right, but as a
means of social perfection.
According to Frances Hosford, Oberlin's
"many new departures have
never been upheavals or changes for the
sake of something new. They
have sprung from the efforts of earnest
men to be loyal to the right
as they saw it."19 There
was little debate surrounding the decision
to include women, and less awareness of
the storm of protest that
would follow. The founders emphasized a religious
community of
which women were to be as much a part as
men: they served as models
of virtue, and were therefore a
necessary part of a virtuous model
society. The supposedly radical
innovation of joint education of men
and women was lost upon Oberlin's
founders.
The participants in the experiment
believed that it worked. In
1836, the faculty and trustees of the
college met to discuss the merits
of joint education. They reported that
the mental influence was
mutually beneficial, that it cultivated
"mind and manners, promotes
real virtue, and corrects frivolities,
irregularities, and follies common to
youth." They concluded that
"no serious evil and much good" resulted
16. Daniel Rohrer, "Young Ladies
Literary Society of Oberlin College: 1835-1860"
(unpub. A.M. thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin,
1969), 101.
17. Nancy Prudden to George Prudden, 15
May 1837, Fletcher Collection, Box 11,
Oberlin College Archives (OCA); Ann
Elisa Gillett to Charlotte Fenner, 5 January 1838,
Fletcher Collection, Box 7.
18. Ann Harris to Laura Branch, 27 April
1843, Fletcher Collection, Box 7.
19. Frances J. Hosford, Father
Shipherd's Magna Charta (Boston, 1937), 6.
Evangelical Community 85 |
|
from the association of the sexes, which was the true basis of human society. 20 As women's social responsibility expanded, discussions arose as to their proper sphere. In 1838, Professor John Morgan delivered a speech in which he declared that as long as individuals felt dissatisfied with their sphere, they could not fulfill their responsibilities. Women should recognize the female role not as degraded but as a noble calling.21 The women to whom he spoke agreed in theory. Men and women shared the assumption that women would remain in their sphere once they had experienced college. They were to exert moral influence not only within the limits of the family, but upon social activity. Moreover, this activism was a calling, a necessary part of women's duties. In 1836, forty-three young women were asked to record, among other personal facts, their future intentions. The plans of those who responded are illuminating. Nine women simply wrote "teach," with Jane Strong adding "and translate Scriptures." Ten women planned to be a "missionary" or "home missionary," often adding "if the Lord wills" or "where God in His Providence directs." Five other women
20. Minutes of the Board of Trustees, Oberlin College, 9 March 1836. 21. James Fairchild to Mary Kellogg, 19 March 1838, Where Liberty Dwells, OCSC. |
86 OHIO HISTORY
specifically wished to be "foreign
missionaries," while three others
planned either to teach or
perform missionary work. Catharine
Gillett "hope[d] to become
qualified for instructing the ignorant,"
and nine other women intended to
"prepare for whatever station the
Lord directs" or labor in
"some sphere of Christian usefulness."22
Clearly, these women joined men in
believing that they followed a
calling to be useful in the religious
education of others.
Marriage and family, like all other
aspects of life, fit into the
larger scheme of evangelical activism.
The family was the focal point
of female virtues and influence,
"the one morally reliable institution
in a fluid and diverse society."23
Marriage was a given, the family
the model from which women's influence
would be implemented in
the larger society.
The joint education of women and men,
given the moral and
physical seclusion of the community,
resulted in an extraordinary
number of marriages among Oberlin
graduates. Between 1837 and
1846, 97.5 percent of Oberlin's women
graduates married, and 65
percent of these married Oberlin men.24
Others married ministers and
theologically-trained teachers who
shared their beliefs. This pattern
continued until the late 1840s, when
fewer men pursued seminary
training and complexities of belief
arose. The close interaction of
college life, even under strict
supervision, provided a common basis
on which to build families. Further, the
common life-style was in
opposition to the norm, making the
experiment more seclusive and
in turn bringing participants together.
It was not necessary to place
conscious emphasis on marriage as a goal
for women; rather, it was a
base from which women and men would act.
Marriage and family
were usable institutions, not ends in
themselves.
Although affection and respect are
evident throughout the corre-
spondence of Oberlin couples, marriages
were intended primarily for
sharing Christian labor. James
Fairchild, evaluating a prospective
career in Michigan, wrote, "There
is not as much opportunity here
[in Oberlin] for women to exert an
influence, except in their own
families."25 Circumstances
finally led him to remain at Oberlin, but
many Oberlin women did go west with
their husbands. Perhaps
frontier life appealed to women who were
prepared for its rigors by
a religious and social commitment.
Frequently they set up Christian
22. The original copies of these
autobiographical statements are in the Oberlin
College Archives.
23. Ronald Walters, The Antislavery
Appeal (Baltimore, 1976), 94.
24. Louis Hartson, "Marriage Record
of Alumnae for the First Century of a
Coeducational College," The
Journal of Heredity, XXXI, (Sept., 1940), 406.
25. Fairchild to Kellogg, 8 February
1841, Where Liberty Dwells.
Evangelical Community 87
schools, accordingly structured around
female and domestic values, as
well as the goals of missionary work and
religious education. Thus
Oberlin women and men sought to continue
their community after
graduation. They left a relatively
secure environment for the greater
mission of regenerating the evil world.
By the 1850s, Oberlin itself had
changed. The years 1835 to 1850
were "the years of 'peculiar'
Oberlin. ... But the transition...
began early," says Fletcher.
"The period after 1850 was marked by
a combination of fulfillment and
conformity which . . . had translated
Oberlin from its unique status."26 With the decline of
religious
intensity, there was a marked trend
toward secularism following 1850,
coincident with the retirement of Asa
Mahan as president as well as
with outside pressures toward conformity
with the practices of other
colleges and communities. These
practices included increased (and
increasingly heterogeneous) enrollment,
an endowment, and a more
general acceptance of previously bizarre
"Oberlinisms." In particular,
the Fugitive Slave Law (1850) and
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) made
the "hotbed of abolitionism"27
more respectable in the North; the
beginning of a women's rights movement
made "joint education"
more acceptable; and the trend toward
worldliness on the part of a
drained revivalist movement made Oberlin
much like other schools.
Oberlin members were never really able
to reconcile their self-
imposed separation from American society
with the desire to correct
their country's sinful behavior.
Antipathetic to the evils of an
individualistic society, they
nevertheless tried to create, or regain, a
community by individual means. This
required a fervor whose moral
absolutism had shifted focus by the
1850s. Increasingly, men at
Oberlin conformed to American social and
political norms, which
included more worldly-or
political-activity, particularly regarding
the abolition of slavery. The Christian
sphere became more specifically
woman's, and, through the nineteenth
century, hers was the responsi-
bility to preserve, by nonpolitical
means, the family and the com-
munity.
Sarah and Angelina Grimke wished to
extend democracy's supposed
benefits to women. America, they
believed, was not intended to be a
hierarchical society, and infringements
of political or legal "rights"
were inconsistent with accepted values.
Catharine Beecher, in contrast,
recognized and valued the hierarchy
within American society and
structured a social role for women that
depended upon its continuance.
She acknowledged that men had been given
a role superior to women,
26. Fletcher, History of Oberlin
College, 886.
27. Ibid., 236.
88 OHIO HISTORY
but insisted that women's social
responsibility was as necessary a part
of societal change as men's. The
characters of the two sexes should
be recognized and clearly
differentiated,and both should be instructed
as to their functions in the
well-ordered society.28
Throughout the nineteenth century,
Beecher's ideology and methods
were the more successful, "possibly
because [she] prescribed less
dramatic cultural changes, spoke to real
American anxieties about
the pace of change, and introduced
important stabilizing factors into
the national ideology."29 In
addition, she spoke to the religious belief
of American women, exposing the gap
between traditional Christian
virtues and modernizing America. As
emphasized earlier, her ideology
was inseparable from her practice, which
was to educate women to
teach and exert an influence in society.
That influence was "conserva-
tive" in that its ideal was a cohesive
society based on a familial
pattern. It conflicted sharply with the
dominant values of the
"masculine" world, which
glorified democracy, "progress," and
growth. The price of men's activity in
their realm seemed to be the
dislocation of a close-knit society.
Women, the "bearers of culture,"
were not to err, as had men, in their
involvement with industrial
society; rather, they were to purify it.
Women perpetuated the
submergence of self- for
community-interest that characterized the
early Oberlin community. Oberlin's
members, in a fervent, if brief,
effort to employ these values in saving
the world, expected both
women and men to minimize personal
interest in the greater interest
of family, or community, cohesiveness
and stability.
28. Sklar, Catharine Beecher, 132-37.
29. Ibid., 137.
LORI D. GINZBERG
Women in an Evangelical Community:
Oberlin 1835-1850
Women and men joined the first
coeducational college in order
to create both a model Christian
community and trained missionaries
for the world's enlightenment and
regeneration.' Oberlin College was
not a "feminist" experiment,
for the concept of feminism did not truly
exist. It was an evangelical project,
in which women were an integral
part. An understanding of why certain
women came to Oberlin and
what they found there may illuminate
the ways women found to satisfy
the demands placed upon them. It is not
useful to merely take signs of
protest as evidence of change in their
lives; change was far more subtle,
and women's experience more complex and
interesting, than measures
of "oppression" indicate.
Religion and commitment to community
were the central focuses in many
women's lives, and thus they must
assume their proper place in the
historical study of American women.2
The interest in Oberlin as a college
obscures its significance as a
religious community. It is in this
latter regard that one gains the most
insight into women's participation.
Oberlin's founders set out for the
frontier in 1833 to create a model
society, one that would demonstrate
true Christian living to what they
termed the "perishing world." Women
Lori D. Ginzberg is a graduate student
in history at Yale University.
1. Oberlin College is frequently
mentioned in connection with women's education
and their struggle for emancipation.
Discussions seek to demonstrate that Oberlin is
either to be praised for being in the
vanguard on these issues or condemned for
hypocrisy. The concept of religious
faith has not been given a central role. Robert
Fletcher pointed out Oberlin's positive
influence on later decisions to educate
women alongside men and saw "joint
education" as a significant step in America's
progress toward sexual equality: Robert
Samuel Fletcher, A History of Oberlin College
From Its Foundation Through the Civil
War, Vol 1 (Oberlin, 1943), 904-09.
Recent
"feminist" writers emphasize
Oberlin's double standard and the "masculine priorities"
with which the experiment was
implemented. See Ronald W. Hogeland, "Coeducation
of the Sexes at Oberlin College: A Study
of Social Ideas in Mid-Nineteenth Century
America," Journal of Social
History, VI (Fall, 1972), 160-71, and Jill Conway,
"Perspective on the History of
Women's Education in the United States," History
of Education Quarterly, XIV (Spring, 1974), 1-12.
2. I object to the view that the clergy
somehow manipulated women into joining
churches out of self-interest. This
ignores the centrality of belief in women's lives,
which was a source of strength as well
as of dependence. See Ann Douglas, The
Feminization of American Culture (New York, 1977).