Ohio History Journal

THE EVOLUTION OF THE OHIO-ERIE BOUNDARY.

BY REGINALD C. M'GRANE,

D. A. R. Fellow, University of Cincinnati.

The question of "boundaries" has always been a source of

trouble. Nations have been arrayed against each other, wars

have been fought, diplomats have argued, and demagogues have

harrangued over such disputed points. Sometimes Providence

in its unaccountable way, has helped to solve the question by

placing natural limits between race and race or between nation

and nation, but where nature has failed to do so, all the cunning,

strength and greed of the different parties has been brought into

play in the proper defining of their respective spheres of action.

Whether it be the case of the Visigoth struggling with the Roman

for the integrity of his lands, or the German with the French-

man, or the   American with the Englishman about the just

limitation of their claims, the final adjustment has been the

result of a long series of events. The explorer, who first opened

the new country, the colonizer who rapidly followed in his

footsteps to plant the flag of his nation, the settler who began

to develop the country and the soldier who fought for his rights

-all these were factors in the settlement of the question. Thus

the fixing of a definite line between nation and nation is not the

work wholly of the diplomats who sign the ultimate agreement.

It is the conclusion of many years of effort during which time

these various elements have gradually evolved a distinct idea as

to the justice and extent of their claims, and their determination

to fulfill them. And if European countries can furnish us with

classic illustrations of the gradual evolution of different boun-

daries, the New World can do so as well. Therefore it will be

the purpose of this paper to show the gradual working out of

this plan in one of our own localities.

In defining the limits of the Ohio-Erie country no natural

conditions seem to present either a source of hindrance or ad-

vantage to its delimitation. Certainly no obstacle is placed in

(326)

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.      327

the way of creating a definite section, for these factors-the

Ohio River and its significant tributaries, Lake Erie, the Ap-

palachian Mountains and the Mississippi--are more aids than

bars to its definition. But as we study carefully the history of

this region three rather distinct periods appear in the course

of its growth. In the first period-which for convenience let

us call the period of Discernment - we find the explorer pene-

trating the region, noting the points of vantage of the new

land and relating these to his superior officers. He, in turn, is

followed by the colonizer who likewise reports home what he

finds here. Yet during this first period, although there may be

more than one nation penetrating this portion of the country,

little mention is made to restrict the bounds of either. How-

ever near its close the colonizer does begin to grow more em-

phatic in his desire to secure certain points of importance. In

the second period-that of Delineation-a rather distinct out-

line seems to have been agreed upon by the parties involved

and the necessary steps are taken to carry out this scheme. In

the third period, therefore-that of Disposition-we have the

final adjustment of these claims and the region clearly marked

out.

It is natural to expect the factors in these different periods

to change; and this is the case. In the first, the principal ele-

ments are the French and English explorers and colonizers; in

the second, the English and the Indian; and in the last the Eng-

lish and American diplomats with the Indian as a subordinate

member in the controversy. Let us now then examine more

in detail the history of these periods and see the actual working

of these forces.

The period of Discernment-which extends from 1615 to

1751-opens with the work of that hardy French pioneer-Sam-

uel de Champlain. Impelled by his desire to trade with the na-

tives, to carry to them the gospel, and to aid his comrade Le

Charon, Champlain plunged into the wilderness in 1615 and after

many difficulties reached Lake Huron. Here he seems to have

been checked in his career to the westward and to have turned

his attention to other affairs. His geographical knowledge about

the land was vague for as late as 1632 in his maps he depicted the

328       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

Niagara River somewhat elongated, leading from the outlet of

Lake Huron to Lake St. Louis (Ontario).1    But the impor-

tance of his work lies in the fact that he encouraged others to go

farther than he had done. The followers of his race quickly

took up the work he had laid down. Flourishing missionary

stations were soon established in the country of the Hurons.

Moreover extensive expeditions were now fitted out to explore

this region. In 1641 the Jesuit Raymbault reaches the falls of

St. Mary's and returns reporting favourably of the natives;

in 1654 another party makes a journey to Green Bay; and in

1660 a corps of fur traders ventures into the lake country and

returned laden with furs. Thus from 1654 to 1660 the French

push steadily westward until in 1668 Father Marquette estab-

lishes a settlement at St. Mary's. But it is not until 1670 that

the French really enter the region we are at present studying.

In that year we have the formation of that unique expedition of

LaSalle and the Sulpitian missionaries Francis Dollier de Casson

and Rene de Biehart de Galinee for the Far West. The his-

tory of this attempt is well known; the meeting with Joliet at

the Grand River, the separation of the parties, the priests reach-

ing Lake Erie, their  wintering on its shores, and their final

journey to Sault Ste. Marie. At the same time the priests were

having these experiences LaSalle was exploring the head waters

of the Ohio; but owing to a series of unforseen circumstances he

also was forced to abandon his work. Accordingly, for a few

years there is a lull in French endeavor but as soon as LaSalle

is again restored to power, interest revives. This time we have

the direct entrance of the French into the Lake Erie region by

the building of "The Griffin" by Tonty and Hennepin and its

launching at Fort Conti.

La Salle brings the period of French exploration to a close;

and at the same time ushered in the era of colonization. The

task of settling in the new land which had previously been car-

ried on in a rather desultory and scattered manner, now as-

sumes definite form. In 1671 the French have a settlement at

Michilimachinac;2 and in 1687 Governor Denonville erects a

1Hanna, C. A.: Wilderness Trail, Vol. 1, p. 7.

2Blanchard, R.: Discovery of the Northwest, p. 74.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.      329

fort on the site of LaSalle's old blockhouse at the Niagara river ;3

and in 1701 Antoinette de la Motte founds Detroit.⁴ Thus by

the beginning of the eighteenth century the French are well

established in the new land; but not alone, for their ever present

rivals-the English-have kept strides with them.

Coincident with the advance of LaSalle to the west, we

hear of the English being in the same region.⁵ But, as was

thoroughly characteristic of English policy in the New World,

for many years nothing was carefully planned with respect to

the opening up of the west. It is not until 1671 that any pre-

tentious expedition is sent out to explore this land. In that year

Major-General Abraham Wood sets out "for ye finding out of

the ebbing and flowing of ye water behind the mountains in order

to discover the South Sea"-6 which resulted in the latter's

reaching the Kanawha River. Nothing exact seems to have

been gained by this journey and for a time interest in the west

died out; but this was again revived under the able administra-

tion of Thomas Dongan when English agents were started up

the lakes with the purpose of establishing trading posts.⁶a How-

ever, in 1716, under the guidance of that peculiar character,

Governor Spotswood of Virginia, the English do turn their

attention to the west. This time they appear to have been aroused

to the worth of the country and strategic importance of secur-

ing certain sites for we read of Governor Spotswood's advice

to plant settlements on Lake Erie for commercial reasons; fur-

thermore, as he states, the English "might be able to cut off or

disturb the communication between Canada and Louisiana if a

war should happen to break out."⁷

With the expedition of Governor Spotswood the first half

of the first period is completed. Both nations now bend their

efforts towards colonization. With this more definite expan-

3Wisconsin Historical Collection, Vol. XVI, p. 128, note.

4Blanchard, R.: Discovery of the Northwest, p. 71.

5I. J. Cox: Journey of La Salle, Vol. I, p. 38.

6Darlington, Wm. A.: Journal of Christopher Gist, Intro., p. 20-21.

6a Blanchard, R.: Discovery of the Northwest, p. 69.

7 Spotswood's Letters: Virginia Historical Collection, 1st series,

Vol. II. p. 297. 298.

330       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

sion there naturally develops a strong feeling of antipathy be-

tween the two parties involved. The French and English soon

perceive that a struggle is impending and each begin to make

preparations for the inevitable. Both turn to the Indian-the

original owner of the land but the one who had been utterly

ignored up to this time-to aid them in the coming strife. Here

the English profiting by the mistakes made by the French, gain

the confidence of the Indian and although in the preliminary

struggles of these years-namely those about Sandusky8-the

English and their allies are worsted in the conflict, the English-

man has gained an important ally who in future years will be a

source of great strength to him in striving with another foe.

At the same time this struggle is going on in the west new

agencies are being created in the east to cope with the situation.

England and the colonies have at least realized the importance of

holding the western lands and now they intend to strain every

nerve to accomplish their object. Great projects are set forth

-such as that of the Ohio Land Company (one of the leading

companies engaged in this work)-to settle "within the next

seven years at least one hundred families in this region". But

a new type of man-one who is thoroughly conversant with the

conditions in the West must be employed to carry out these

schemes; and it is in the perfecting of this plan that the West

at last comes into its own. Such men as Conrad Weiser, a

shrewd native German in the employ of the Pennsylvania coun-

cil, George Croghan, the Irish trader, Andrew Montour, the

half-breed,-all these must be put to work to save the English

establishments by gaining the faith of the Indians. Moreover

an accurate survey of the new land must be made for the new

colonizing companies, and this work is left to that intrepid fron-

tiersman and surveyor Christopher Gist. Besides, the struggles

which were then going on between the rival colonies-Pennsyl-

vania and Virginia-over their various claims to these western

lands were all contributing to arouse interest in this section. There-

fore it is small wonder the journey westward of this frontiers-

man was watched with much interest by the men of his day;

8 See account of this struggle in Ohio Archaeological and Historical

Soc. Publ., 1909.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.     331

and the careful journal kept by Gist (which furnishes us with

a fund of information) bears witness of the exactness with which

the observations were made. Setting out in 1750 with his pur-

pose clearly before him Gist plunged into the Indian country

concealing his real designs from all those who sought to learn

them. When at last, however, he met George Croghan and

Andrew Montour he threw aside this cloak of mystery and be-

gan actively to gain the friendship of the Indians. The account

of the combined efforts of Croghan and Gist in conciliating the

latter and in strengthening the bonds of friendship between the

most powerful tribes and the English as detailed in Gist's jour-

nal presents a remarkable record of successful frontier diplo-

macy. The account shows us the careful examination that was

made and the emphasis placed upon the importance of retaining

it for the English. Thus we see that at the close of this first

period the country has been thoroughly developed by both the

English and French and that now since settlements are beginn-

ing to encroach upon each other, the necessity of expelling the

one or the other or of placing a definite boundary between the

two seems just beginning to take root. Thus the first period

of our story comes to a close with the journey of Celeron through

this country planting plates and taking possession of the land

in the name of the King of France, and with the English send-

ing Gist westward while preparing at the same time for the on-

coming strife.

Taking up now the period of Delineation, we find that the

scene has shifted. During the intervening years from 1751-

the last tour westward of Christopher Gist-and 1763 the French

have been driven from their possessions. In this struggle the

region we are studying does not take an active part although

much mention is made of proposed expeditions against such

places as Detroit, etc., all of which come to naught.⁹ The English

do, however, gain possession of the principal sites during the

course of the war. In 1758 Fort DuQuesne changes its name to

Fort Pitt, in 1759 Niagara is taken, and the English have al-

ready planted settlements upon these old French locations when

we again take up the thread of our story. Conditions have

9Wisconsin Historical Collection, Vol. XVI, XVII.

332       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

changed greatly within these few years and have wrought cor-

responding changes in the policies to be pursued in connection

with these western lands. The French have been eliminated;

but a new factor has appeared in the presence of the ever omni-

present Indian; and it is in dealing with the latter that we have

the gradual evolution of a boundary for this region. All the

cunning and guile of the Indian is now pitted against the bull-

dog determination of the white man to hold what he has

already. New methods must be chosen and another set of men

must be called upon to bring this to completion. The struggle

is a noble one and for the next five years the West occupies

the attention of the British officials in their endeavor to restrict

the areas of the combatants.

The proposal to mark out a definite line with regards the

west comes, of course, as a result of the harassing actions of

the Indians upon the whites. The necessity of having such a

boundary to limit the actions of the Indians and the whites had

been felt and had been expressed as far back as 175710 but

nothing was actually done as regards this until 1763. By this

time establishments were of sufficient size and importance to com-

mand some attention from the colonial governments and from

the mother country. Therefore, when Sir William Johnson in

the latter part of 1763 proposed "that a certain line should be

run back of the Northern colonies beyond which no settlement

should be made until the whole Six Nations should think proper

of selling part thereof"¹¹ we are not surprised that the English

government adopted this policy. Furthermore such a scheme

was in direct accord with the imperial tendencies of Great Britian

during the eighteenth century - namely first neglect and then

sharp control.¹² The primary purpose therefore of the proc-

lamation of 1763 as it was finally issued by the British govern-

ment was to centralize the authority in control of Indian affairs.¹³

Some recent writers have asserted that an ulterior motive was to

10 New York Colonial Doc., Vol. VII, p. 302.

11Ibid, Vol. VII, p. 578.

12Michigan Pioneer Collection, Vol. 36, p. 35.

13Ibid, Vol. 36, p. 25 Farrand: Indian Boundary Line.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.       333

restrain the growth of the colonies,14 but this, upon closer ex-

amination, seems without foundation.15 At any rate, Sir William

Johnson's proposal gained a ready hearing in the mother country

and when it was strengthened in the early part of the following

year by a similar request from George Croghan16 no time was

lost in bringing it to completion. So by the beginning of 1764

a rather definite boundary line has been set up between the

whites and the Indians; thus bringing into relief a more exact

sketch of the western land.

But the proclamation of 1763 was soon found to be inade-

quate in certain respects. The French and Spanish officials had

in the meantime tampered with the Indians and were urging

them to take up arms against the English giving them assur-

ances of powerful assistance.¹⁷  The Indians had in the start

desired such a boundary line hoping that by such measures the

encroachment upon their lands would cease; but too much time

had intervened between the proposal and the actual settlement

and the Indians were now becoming restive.18 Therefore in the

face of an impending Indian war the Board of Trade on Decem-

ber 23, 1767 agreed that a line should be immediately established;

and orders were sent to America to that effect.¹⁹ A series of

treaties were made with the Indians-namely at Fort Stanwix

(1768) and later one at Lochabar (1770)-by which a continuous

boundary line was run "back of the Appalachian Mountains,

around the coast of Florida and through the southern part of

east and west Florida almost to the Mississippi River."²⁰  By

these treaties-especially that at Fort Stanwix21-the Ohio river

was agreed upon as part of this boundary line between the whites

and the Indians; and it is by the settlement upon the Ohio river

14Ibid, Vol. 36, p. 33.

15 N. Y. Col. Doc., Vol. 8, p. 94, 95.

16Ibid, Vol. 7, p. 602-607.

17Ibid, Vol. 8, p. 123.

18 Ibid, Vol. 8, p. 152.

19 N. Y. Doc., Vol. 7, p. 1004, and Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Pro., 1908,

p. 175, 176.

20Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Proceedings, 1908, p. 175, 176.

21 Text of treaty in Pennsylvania Colonial Records, Vol. 9, p. 554-555;

Vol. 10, p. 257, and N. Y. Col. Doc., Vol. 8, p. 158.

334       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

as a part of this line that this section begins to assume a political

community life. With the Ohio river as a southern boundary-

although it was supposed to mark out only a division line between

white and Indian settlements-and the Great Lakes to the north

separating the newly acquired lands of Canada and those of the

former British colonies-we have the gradual transformation of

this indefinite mass of land to the westward into something

definite in shape.

The West-or as we can now more adequately call it the

Ohio-Erie area was now a particular region in the minds of

those who were controlling the destinies of these lands. Its

northern boundary was not yet determined upon but the im-

portance of holding the Great Lakes as such a line was quite

evident to both the settler and the people in the colonies. There-

fore it is not strange that as the American Revolution begins to

take hold in the colonies to the eastward, the men in charge of

affairs quickly turn their attention to this land for the purpose of

retaining and checking the advance of the English. In this

struggle the Indian again enters as a principal factor.

Some recent writers²² have declared that the American

policy during these years tended towards securing Indian neu-

trality quoting in support of their argument a speech prepared

for the Six Nations early in July 1775. But instead of trying

"to keep the hatchet buried deep" it seems to the writer that the

Americans were quite willing to employ and to instigate the

Indians to action. As early as April 29, 1776 we read of the

committee in charge of Indian affairs being instructed to pre-

pare an expedition against Fort Detroit.²³  The report as ren-

dered by the committee was, it is true, postponed,²⁴ but in the

following year the project was again brought forward and this

time it is stated that the "Indians were to be induced to surprise

Niagara" but to do so "with secrecy and prudence".²⁵ The next

day after this proposal was made, December 4, 1777, the idea was

22Wisconsin Historical Soc. Proceedings, 1909.

23 Secret Journals of Congress, Vol. I, p. 43.

24 Ibid, p. 43.

25 Ibid, p. 57.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.       335

again expressed in Congress and this time the commissioners

were authorized to give "money or goods" to the Indians.²⁰

The necessity, however, of securing the northwest was too

serious to leave to the whims of savages; so accordingly in 1780

after George Rogers Clark had gained control of the Illinois

region, it was deemed best to fit out a regular expedition to se-

cure this land for the Americans. To such men as Washington

and Jefferson the reduction of Detroit²⁷ was imperative and so

in this year the final arrangements were made for George Rogers

Clark to move against this post. Clark was overjoyed by the

prospects of "putting an end to the Indian warfare on the fron-

tier"²⁸ but this daring scheme was doomed to an early death

because owing to the lack of funds and of men the expedition

had to be abandoned soon after it had got under way. But the

interesting thing to note about these intervening years is the

rising importance of this land--due most probably to its stra-

tegic and commercial position. Therefore it is small wonder that

in the final peace arrangements in 1783 the northern boundary

of this region should be claimed by the Americans as that of

Lake Erie. By their instructions the American representatives

had been directed to obtain a line running from the point where

the ₄₅th parallel crossed the St. Lawrence, directly west to Lake

Nipissing, and thence to the Mississippi.*  Such a line disre-

garded natural features, and when the British commissioners pro-

posed as an alternative the present line following the middle

course of the Great Lakes and finally terminated in the Lake of

the Woods, the American commissioners readily accepted the

change.+

Our period of Disposition ushers in a new series of events.

The northern boundary was now the direct cause of the strife.

The English had refused to comply with the desires of the

American officials to abandon their stronghold upon the Great

26Ibid, p. 30.

27Mississippi Valley Historical Assoc. Pro., Vol. III, p. 301, 302.

28 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society Publ., Vol. XVI, p. 281.

* Cox, I. J.: Indian as a Diplomatic factor in the Northwest, pub-

lished in Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society Publications.

+ Ibid.

336       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

Lakes because they wanted to secure the fur trade and so trouble

was impending. Besides the encroachments of the whites upon

the Indian lands were arousing the latter to hostility. The im-

mediate cause of the Indian's rage was, however, as set forth

by Secretary Knox's report in 1792 "the unprovoked aggressions

of the Miami and Wabash Indians upon Kentucky and other

parts of the frontiers, together with their associates-a banditti

formed of Shawanese and outcast Cherokees, amounting in all

to about 1,200".29 At any rate three expeditions were sent out

to subdue these tribes-General Harmar, General St. Clair and

General Wayne-the last being the only one that proved suc-

cessful and the only one we are interested in for this study.

A detailed account of this expedition under General Anthony

Wayne is unnecessary. All that we need recall as regards the

expedition is that General Wayne by deceiving the Indians suc-

ceeded in advancing far into the Indian country before the latter

were fully aware of his utimate destination; that he met the

Indians and successfully defeated them in the Battle of Fallen

Timbers; that he had a slight tilt of words with the British offi-

cers in charge of the fort in the vicinity in which the latter was

decidedly worsted; and that the campaign finally concluded with

the signing of the Treaty of Greenville between Anthony Wayne

and the Indians.30 The signing of this treaty, however, on Au-

gust 3, 1795 was of great significance to the west. The fact

that the British had intrigued with the Indians during this cam-

paign was quite evident to the American leaders³¹ and therefore

they determined to secure the friendship of the Indian for all

times and to settle all disputes in this Treaty of Greenville. Fur-

thermore a precise boundary line was established at this time

between the lands of the United States and the lands of the

Indian tribes and the southern boundary of the Ohio-Erie

country was again stated as that of the Ohio River-while the

northern limit was to be Lake Erie. A few years later a second

Treaty of Greenville was signed by which the Indians became

29 Annals of Congress, Vol. III, p. 1048.

30 See American State Papers, Indian Affairs.

31 Am. State Papers, Foreign Affairs, Vol. I, p. 484.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.      337

the allies of the Americans and agreed to help them against

their old friends-the British.

But this treaty was not looked upon by Great Britain as

very binding.³² So at her first opportunity she strove to evade

it. Thus when the war of 1812 breaks out England regains

and holds the northern posts and to all intents and purposes pro-

poses to do so for some time to come. Fortune however was

not very bountiful to her in this struggle. In the beginning the

British gained possession of such military posts as Detroit but

this was lost during the course of the war, and so, when the

negotiations for peace opened at Ghent, the Americans, now in

actual control of these strongholds, were in a good position to

reassert their claims to the limits of 1783.

Here at last we find the question in the hands of those whom

we should naturally expect to settle such disputes-the diplomat.

In the preceeding periods the diplomat had played but a minor

part in the transactions, the men on the frontier doing most of

the work. But now at last it has reached the diplomat; but not

one set of diplomats-but three. For the British officials in ad-

dition to their role as representatives of their own government

have assumed the pose of agents in behalf of the distant Indian.

This latter pose of the British seems almost ludicrous. To think

that the one who had so forcibly driven the red man from his

land should now step forward as his champion seems almost in-

congruous; but such is the case. Almost at the first meeting of

the delegates the British members presented their claims that

since the Indians had been their allies in the late war they'were

resolved that they should receive fair treatment at the hands of

the Americans; and they demanded for the Indians a "status

quo ante bellum" which they declared was their"sina qua non" 33

The Ameican delegates were at once enraged over this proposal.

At first they claimed not to be able to treat of this matter be-

cause they did not have instructions to that effect; but when

they saw the futility of so evading the question they stated em-

32 Many American officials seem to have held this idea; see Wharton:

Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution, Vol. V, p. 87.

33 American State Papers, Foreign Affairs, Vol. III, p. 706.

22

338        Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

phatically their refusal to acquiesce to any such terms as set

forth by the British-namely to create a barrier Indian state

between the possessions of the British and those of the United

States even though the boundary was to be almost the same as

that set forth in the Treaty of Greenville. Some of the mem-

bers of the American delegation might have been willing to

comply with the wishes of the British³⁴ but Henry Clay,³⁵ repre-

senting the West, refused most decidely to support such a propo-

sition and so by dint of much wrangling the British were finally

forced on October 2536 to abandon their position and to take

up the one other question that has to deal with our subject-

namely the evacuation of the northern posts (Mackinac and its

dependencies). Here again some of the American members

were disposed to view somewhat mildly the designs of the Brit-

ish in retaining these posts37 but again the new American spirit

of nationality exerted itself and the forts were handed over to

the American government.    In the same manner the British

proposals that Americans should forbear from arming vessels

on the lakes or erecting fortifications were quickly rejected by the

American delegates and the commerce of the Great Lakes was

left open to both nations.

So concludes the early history of the Ohio-Erie country.

The main forces at work in the gradual evolution of its boun-

dary had been the white man and the Indian-respective repre-

sentatives of civilization and savagery.  Whether it was the

English and French settlers or later the English and American

diplomats quarreling over this region, the ultimate goal in view

had been the driving of the red man from this region and its

settlement and adjustment by the white man. And though it

may seem   cruel that the original owner was at last driven

from his home the later history of this section will, I think,

34Life of John Jay; William Jay, Vol. II, p. 363, 364.

35 Memoirs of J. Q. Adams, Vol. III, p. 68, 103.

36 American State Papers, Foreign Affairs, Vol. III. p. 710. The

news that a second Treaty of Greenville had been signed between the

Americans and Indians was a direct incentive for the English to relinquish

their claims.

37Ibid, Foreign Affairs, Vol. I, p. 486.

The Evolution of the Ohio-Erie Boundary.           339

make us feel that perhaps it was for the best.*    But, we who

live in this section of the west must not forget that:

"Not with the bold array

of armies dread"

was the Disposition finally brought about but:

"Thru a long warfare rude,

With patient hardihood,

By toil, and strife and blood,

The soil was won."

* In the preparation of this article I wish to acknowledge the many

valuable suggestions of my instructor, Professor Isaac Joslin Cox of

the University of Cincinnati.