ROBERT A. BUERKI
Pharmaceutical Education in
Nineteenth-Century Ohio
The development of pharmacy as a
profession in America had its roots in
English customs and traditions, the
colonial practice of pharmacy differing
from that of its mother country only in
being more lax and unrestricted and
standing on a somewhat lower level. Only
a small minority of its practition-
ers was educated beyond an
apprenticeship that lacked both the system and
standards that strong English guilds had
once given it. Not until after the
Civil War was any school of pharmacy
founded as a regularly recognized in-
stitution or as a part of a more
comprehensive educational organization; in-
deed, formal academic study in pharmacy
as a prerequisite to licensure would
not be required in any state until 1905.
Early attempts at pharmaceutical
education in the United States met with
varying degrees of success. Until 1865,
all formal instruction for the practice
of pharmacy centered in one southern
medical collegel and, more importantly,
in five independent schools operated by
pharmacists through their local asso-
ciations, called "colleges of
pharmacy."2 These organized groups of pharma-
cists and druggists were determined that
their apprentices would be better edu-
cated than they themselves were. Less
altruistic, but no less important exter-
nal stimulation came from physicians who
saw pharmacy emerging as a sub-
sidiary branch of their own somewhat
more developed profession, from a drug
market infested by substandard and
adulterated drugs, and from publicity at-
tending the accidental poisonings
attributed to ignorant drug vendors.3 In
Robert A. Buerki is Associate Professor
of Pharmacy Practice and Administration at The
Ohio State University.
1. In 1838, a pharmacy course was
instituted by the Medical College of Louisiana, which
later became part of Tulane University.
Graduating only one or two pharmacy students a year
before 1861, the venture was never
influential on the development of university instruction in
pharmacy or on practice, but rather
served as an example for other medical colleges that en-
tered pharmaceutical education in the
1860s. See Glenn Allen Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before
1900," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Wisconsin, 1952), 59-60.
2. At this time in England,
"college" referred to corporations with scientific aims as well as
to educational institutions. The term
had a like meaning in France, where Parisian apothecaries
had established a College de
Pharmacie in 1777 with educational as
well as professional func-
tions.
3. Glenn Sonnedecker, "The College
of Pharmacy During 75 Years at Ohio State
University," unpublished address
before the Ohio Academy of Medical History, meeting in
Pharmaceutical Education
43
Philadelphia (1821), New York (1829),
and Baltimore (1841) and, later, in
Chicago (1859) and St. Louis (1865), the
organizers of these schools sought
not only to supplement the practical
information gathered by their apprentices
during their in-service training, but to
organize the scattered fragments into a
systematic whole.4
In these early schools, physicians and,
later, master pharmacists provided
instruction in the form of lectures two
or three evenings a week during the
winter months. There were no
requirements for admission, save possibly ap-
prenticeship with some preceptor;
apprentices would attend the same lectures
twice in successive winters or possibly
oftener; there was little laboratory in-
struction available.5 To
graduate, the apprentices had to pass an examination
given by the lecturers and an examining
committee of the college and show
proof of a satisfactory apprenticeship
of four years, which included "attendance
upon lectures."6
Since the practice of pharmacy at the
time was considered by most
American pharmacists and physicians as
an art that could be best learned by
compounding the remedies in common use,
the early schools enjoyed neither
custom nor prosperity, and in more than
one instance the training of appren-
tices had to be delayed a number of
years.7 The number of apprentices attend-
conjunction with the 75th annual meeting
of the Ohio Historical Society, Columbus, Ohio, April
30, 1960, 3, upon which much of this
paper is based. Also see Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before
1900," 54, 58, and 63. Comparable conditions in American
medicine also produced untimely
institutional deaths. See Allan Nevins, The Emergence of
Modern America, 1865-1878 (New York, 1927), 276-78.
4. Two other local associations were
organized during this period, in Boston (1823) and
Cincinnati (1850), but neither were able
to sustain a regular school of pharmacy until after the
Civil War.
5. Edward Kremers, "The Teaching of
Pharmacy During the Past Fifty Years," The
Druggists Circular, 51 (January, 1907), 72. Apprentices were expected to
receive their practi-
cal training in the drug store. In
Chicago, for example, students "were encouraged to read,
study and experiment, utilizing the
opportunities afforded in the shops....
The teachers pos-
sessed the equipment necessary for
demonstration of the lectures, but there were no laborato-
ries." W[illiam] B. Day, "The
School of Pharmacy," in The Alumni Record of the University of
Illinois, edited by Carl Stephens (Dixon and Chicago, 1921),
xxvi.
6. Kremers, loc. cit. Kremers compared
the schools of the colleges of pharmacy during this
period as Fortbildungsanstalten, "comparable
to the evening schools of the several trades in
our larger cities of to-day."
7. Thus, the "school of
undergraduates" of the College of Pharmacy of the City and County
of New York was "in a somnolent
condition" between 1857 and 1859. Curt P. Wimmer, The
College of Pharmacy of the City of
New York (New York, 1929), 20 and 50.
The school of the
Maryland College of Pharmacy was more or
less active until 1847, "but thereafter languished
until 1856, when . . . it was thoroughly
reorganized." [Frederick Stearns], "Report on the
Progress of Pharmacy: Education," Proceedings
of the American Pharmaceutical Association,
7 (1858), 87. The Chicago College of
Pharmacy suspended its courses of lectures upon the
outbreak of the Civil War and did not
reopen its school until 1870. Albert E. Ebert, "Historical
Sketch of the Chicago College of
Pharmacy," ([Chicago?], n.d.), 2, American Pharmaceutical
Association Archives, Washington, D.C.,
cited by Kremers, op. cit., 67. Even after 1865 at the
St. Louis College of Pharmacy there were
a few years when "no lectures were delivered be-
cause there were not a sufficient number
of students to form classes." W[illia]m C. Bohn,
44 OHIO
HISTORY
ing lectures in these colleges before
the Civil War was small, and the number
who graduated was still smaller.8 In
1854, a commission organized by the
newly organized American Pharmaceutical
Association complained that the
country had been
deluged with incompetent drug clerks,
whose claim to the important position they
hold or apply for is based on a year or
two's service in the shop, perhaps under cir-
cumstances illy calculated to increase
their knowledge. These clerks in turn be-
come principals, and have the direction
of others-alas! for the progeny that some
of them bring forth, as ignorance
multiplied by ignorance will produce neither
knowledge nor skill.9
Even the Association did not expect
apprentices to study at one of the phar-
macy schools. Rather, it admonished all
levels of pharmacy personnel to read
the pharmaceutical literature
"regularly and understandingly and assist [their]
reading by experiment and
observation." The graduates of schools of phar-
macy were urged to "act as examples
to their less favored brethren."10
The era of the pharmacy schools
sponsored by local pharmaceutical associa-
tions ended with the Civil War; from
that time on, pharmacy schools were
founded in one of four ways: privately
by groups of pharmacists organized
only for that purpose; as parts of
private or denominational universities and
colleges; as divisions of medical
colleges; or, most importantly, as parts of
state universities. The private or
"proprietary" schools, depending partly on
the approval of their
pharmacist-trustees and financial supporters and more on
the fees paid by their students, were
reluctant to offer much in the line of de-
manding training that might diminish the
student body. On the other hand,
the pharmacy courses sponsored by
medical colleges posed a territorial threat
to leaders within pharmacy.11 With
the establishment and growth of the state
"Our Alma Mater and We Her
Children," Silver Anniversary Report of the Alumni Association
of the St. Louis College of Pharmacy (St. Louis, 1901), 27, cited by Kremers, op. cit., 68.
8. Among the 31,443,321 people in the
United States in 1860 there were only 11,031 who
served as apothecaries or druggists; of
these, not more than 514 had graduated from a phar-
macy course in the United States. Henry
L. Taylor, "Schools and Colleges of Pharmacy," The
Pharmaceutical Era, 45 (May, 1912), 336; and Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical
Education Before 1900," 52, n. 17.
9. W[illiam] Procter, Jr., E[dward]
Parrish, D[avid] Stewart, and J[ohn) Meakim, "Address
to the Pharmaceutists of the United
States," Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, 3 (1854), 14.
10. Ibid., 391-92. The Association,
however, recognized the "vast importance ... of good
schools of pharmacy, where the sciences
pertaining to our art are regularly taught," and ex-
pressed its willingness to extend its
"countenance and encouragement to those already existing,
and to all new efforts."
11. Pharmacy historian Glenn Sonnedecker
notes that while these leaders were ready to
recognize a period of study at a medical
college as equivalent to study at a college of phar-
macy, "they could not sanction any
step that might surrender pharmaceutical education to
medical domination, and thus lead the
profession back to the situation from which it had
scarcely escaped." Glenn
Sonnedecker, Kremers and Urdang's History of Pharmacy (4th ed.,
Pharmaceutical Education
45
universities, however, the education of
pharmacists was placed on a different
plane, constituting, in the words of
pharmacy educator and historian Edward
Kremers, "the principal factor in
the onward development of pharmaceutical
education during this period."12
Pharmacy Training at State
Universities
A fervent, almost mystical belief that
education could free the common
man from domination and create a truly
classless society gripped many
Americans during the early years of the
Republic. This belief gave rise to,
and was fortified by, the lyceum
movement, public libraries, Chautauqua,
popular science lectures, public grammar
schools, and the tuition academies
that preceded the modem high schools.
Social pressure and a felt need for re-
spectability nurtured the growth of
schools in dentistry, in law, and in
medicine, the latter of which were
particularly sensitive to the importance-
and power--of credentialing.13
The founding of general institutions of
higher education likewise quickened
during this period, bolstered by
denominational efforts, although endowments
were usually small. Moreover, by 1860,
at least one state-controlled college
or university had been provided for by
almost all of the southern states and
many states west of the Alleghenies,
including Ohio's Miami University at
Oxford and Ohio University at Athens.14 For the most part, however, both
public and private institutions
continued to cling to the classical curriculum
that had served their upper-class
clientele so well since colonial times.15
The passage of the Morrill Land Grant
Act in 1862 jolted many leaders in
higher education. Three challenging
concepts developed from this signal leg-
islation: the belief that higher
education should be made available to broad
segments of the population, the feeling
that education in the applied sciences
should be given wide recognition and
significant status, and the conviction
that universities supported by public
funds should serve both the immediate
and long-range needs of society by
performing broad public services and by
rev.; Philadelphia, 1976), 231-32.
12. Kremers, op. cit., 76.
13. More than eighty medical schools had
been established in the United States before the
Civil War. See William Frederick
Norwood, Medical Education in the United States Before the
Civil War (Philadelphia, 1944), 431.
14. See Elwood P. Cubberley, Public Education
in the United States: A Study and
Interpretation of American
Educational History (Boston, 1934),
269; Charles F. Thwing, A
History of Higher Education in
America (New York, 1906), 328; and
Edwin Grant Dexter, A
History of Education in the United States
(New York, 1904), 279; all cited by
Sonnedecker,
"American Pharmaceutical Education
Before 1900," 67.
15. The notable exception in pharmacy,
the College of Pharmacy at Baldwin University at
Berea, Ohio (1865-76), is discussed
below in some detail.
46 OHIO
HISTORY
engaging in activities designed to serve
the people.16 The Morrill Act thus
wove the strands of public interest in
practical and applied science and public
faith in the power of the educational
process into the fabric of American
higher education and provided the
initial financial support to assure the suc-
cess of an entirely new type of
institution, the land-grant college. To the
struggling health professions in
mid-nineteenth-century America, the Act
brought the hope for stability and
increased public recognition; to the increas-
ingly cramped and limited system of
American pharmaceutical education, the
effect of the Morrill Act was no less
than profound.
The first state-supported institution to
produce graduates in pharmacy was
the Medical College of the State of
South Carolina. The first two students
were graduated in 1867 and a few more
during the 1870s, but by about 1885
the pharmacy department at Charleston
had died out, not to be reorganized un-
til 1894.17 The University of South
Carolina at Columbia likewise gave
some attention to pharmacy beginning
about 1866 as part of a "School of
Chemistry, Pharmacy, Mineralogy, and
Geology," but no students graduated
in pharmacy before the University
collapsed in 1877 for lack of legislative
support. In 1884, a reorganized South
Carolina College supported by a land
grant opened a School of Medicine and
Pharmacy; from it and from a fully re-
constituted university College of
Pharmacy (1888) emerged a thin trickle of
pharmacy graduates until the pharmacy
course again collapsed in 1891.18
These struggling early southern efforts,
reflecting the severe impact of the
Reconstruction period on the parent
institutions, could not strike the spark for
the revolution to come in pharmaceutical
education; this spark came from the
Midwest.
The revolution began in 1868 when the
University of Michigan initiated a
pharmacy curriculum that rejected
several assumptions common to the early
association-based schools of pharmacy.
In a bold innovation, physician-
chemist Albert B. Prescott introduced
extensive laboratory instruction coupled
with basic science, making the academic
study of pharmacy practically a full-
time occupation. Like its southern
predecessors, the Michigan school was
16. See Robert G. Mrtek,
"Pharmaceutical Education in These United States-An
Interpretive Historical Essay of the
Twentieth Century," American Journal of Pharmaceutical
Education, 40 (November, 1976), 363; and William A. Kinnison, Building
Sullivant's Pyramid:
An Administrative History of the Ohio
State University, 1870-1907 (Columbus,
1970), x-xi.
17. Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 106. Like its prede-
cessor at the Medical College of
Louisiana, the South Carolina program offered no innovations
of instruction and graduated few
students. See Sonnedecker, "The College of Pharmacy
During 75 Years at Ohio State
University," 5.
18. Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 105-06. Instruction
resumed in September, 1924, with the
establishment of a new School of Pharmacy. Details
concerning a "School of
Pharmacy" as part of a "Medical College of Alabama, University of
Alabama" (1866) remain shrouded in
mystery. Ibid., 82.
Pharmaceutical Education 47 |
|
the outgrowth of earlier educational efforts on behalf of medical students;19 unlike its predecessors, the new school had outstanding laboratory facilities available to its students, a strong administration noted for pioneering innova- tions, and a faculty committed to the German model of modern research and the new scholarship.20 Moreover, the University had embarked on a vigorous
19. In 1860, Silas H. Douglas introduced a laboratory course in pharmaceutical preparations for medical students to give them practice in the handling of medicines, but "it was quite as much intended as general practical training in applied science." Albert B. Prescott, "Silas H. Douglas as Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy," Pharmaceutical Review, 21 (September, 1903), 362. Douglas is generally regarded as the first professor of chemistry to teach at a state university (1844-77). 20. Sonnedecker, "American Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 127-29. "Michigan was one of the first state universities to free itself from the hampering influences of state poli- tics on the one hand and sectarian influences on the other; to open its doors to women on the same terms as men (1870); to begin the development of instruction in history (1857); education (1879); and government (1881) with a view to serving the state; and to examine and accredit the high schools (1871)." Cubberly, op. cit., 651. Thwing used the University of Michigan as an illustration of the dominance of German ideas in American higher education. Charles Franklin Thwing, The American and the German University: One Hundred Years of History |
48 OHIO
HISTORY
program of instruction without either
the cooperation of the practitioners in
the state, who were opposed to the idea,
or the legitimizing influence of a
state pharmacy practice act.21
Prescott's two-year course of
instruction consisted of four terms of three
months each and included ample
laboratory work in pharmaceutical chemistry,
microscopic botany, and pharmacy, but
required no apprenticeship as a prereq-
uisite to graduation. Prescott's
rejection of the time-honored notion that aca-
demic instruction should be merely a
rounding off of a prolonged apprentice-
ship, coupled with the profession's fear
of encroaching "state control" of
pharmaceutical education, quickly made
him an unpopular figure in pharma-
ceutical circles. Prescott explained the
advantages of scientific pharmaceutical
education before the 1871 meeting of the
American Pharmaceutical
Association with brevity and clarity,22
but suffered a stinging rebuke: his
school was refused recognition as a
college of pharmacy within the "proper
meaning" of the constitution and
bylaws of the Association.23 Even the
Association's Secretary, John M. Maisch,
could argue that it was "wrong to
give a pharmaceutical degree before the
graduate has had pharmaceutical expe-
rience."24 While a
strictly constitutional rejection of Prescott's bold break
with tradition may readily be
understood, the Association's opposition to the
advancement of pharmaceutical education
through an agency of the state and
apprehension about the University's
refusal to accept responsibility for ap-
prenticeship seems scarcely
comprehensible unless we understand the almost
total commitment of its leaders to the
educational ideology of the association-
based schools and their insistence on
continuing to develop pharmaceutical
education independently from the medical
profession. Moreover, in 1871 few
(New York, 1928), 106-07.
21. Sonnedecker, Kremers and Urdang's
History of Pharmacy, 234. The Michigan State
Pharmaceutical Association was founded
in 1874; the Michigan State Pharmacy Practice Act
was adopted in 1885. Ibid., 379 and 381.
22. A[lbert] B. Prescott,
"Pharmaceutical Education," Proceedings of the American
Pharmaceutical Association, 19 (1871), 425-29.
23. The Michigan school was judged
"neither an organization controlled by pharmacists, nor
an institution of learning which, by its
rules and requirements, insures to its graduates the
proper practical training, to place them
on a par with the graduates of the several colleges of
pharmacy represented in this
Association." George F. H. Markoe et al., "Report of the
Committee on the Credentials of the
Delegate from the University of Michigan," Proceedings
of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, 19 (1871), 47. Kremers
points out that the dis-
cussion which followed "showed that
the animus was directed against the institution and that
most of the persons taking part . . .
cared little about the constitutional aspect of the situation."
Kremers, op. cit., 77.
24. "We grant that as much
knowledge in physical and chemical science, and natural history
generally, as a young man may possibly
acquire before he enters a drug store is extremely de-
sirable"; Maisch stated, "but
we believe that with all his knowledge ... he will not be a phar-
macist until he has gone through a
regular system of [practical] training." [John M. Maisch],
"Remarks on Pharmaceutical
Education," Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, 19 (1871), 96.
Pharmaceutical Education
49
states had a pharmacy practice act or a
state board of pharmacy to which the
responsibility for apprenticeship could
be shifted.25
Twelve years passed before the second
state university school of pharmacy
was founded at the University of
Wisconsin (1883), yet it would be incorrect
to infer that the profession had been
inactive during this time. Indeed, quite
the opposite was true: between 1871 and
1883, pharmacy practitioners in
thirty-one states had formed state
pharmaceutical associations, including Ohio
(1879); these associations, in turn, had
stimulated the passage of fifteen new
state pharmacy practice acts to regulate
professional practice and control entry
into the profession.26 In the
arena of pharmaceutical education, activity was
no less intense, if ultimately less
successful: of the eleven private and practi-
tioner-controlled proprietary schools
founded during this period, only five, in-
cluding the Cincinnati College of
Pharmacy (1871), survived by later affiliat-
ing with a private or public university.27
In contrast to the school at Michigan,
the Department of Pharmacy at the
University of Wisconsin was established
by legislative act upon the request of
the pharmacists of the state assembled
at the third annual meeting of their
new state association, one year after
the enactment of a state pharmacy prac-
tice act. Unlike Prescott, the first
Director of the new Department, pharma-
cist-scientist Frederick B. Power, made
practical experience a requirement for a
diploma, although not a prerequisite for
admission to the course.28 Purdue
University opened its School of Pharmacy
the following year (1884) "in re-
sponse to an earnest and growing demand
for a through and practical training
in pharmacy and pharmaceutical
chemistry.... by Indiana pharmacists," par-
ticularly master apothecary John N.
Hurty of Indianapolis, who was influen-
25. See Sonnedecker, Kremers and
Urdang's History of Pharmacy, 232-33. In 1871, only
South Carolina, Georgia, New York,
Alabama, and Rhode Island had adopted legislation
defining the practice of pharmacy and
limiting that practice to qualified practitioners.
Moreover, only six other states-Maine,
California, New Jersey, West Virginia, Vermont, and
Mississippi-had formed statewide
associations of pharmacy practitioners by 1871. Ibid., 381
and 379.
26. Ibid. The causal relationship
between the founding of state pharmaceutical associations
and the passage of state pharmacy
practice acts is strikingly evident. Ibid., 215.
27. Besides the Cincinnati school, the
practitioner-controlled schools founded during this pe-
riod were the Louisville College of
Pharmacy (1871), the National College of Pharmacy
(1872), the Tennessee College of
Pharmacy (1873), the California College of Pharmacy
(1873), and the Pittsburgh College of
Pharmacy (1878). The private institutions were
Georgetown College (1871), Columbian
College (1871), Iowa Wesleyan University (1871),
Vanderbilt University (1879), and Union
University (1881). Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before
1900," 117-18. For details concerning the later affiliations,
see Sonnedecker, Kremers and Urdang's
History of Pharmacy, 383-84.
28. Ibid., 234-35. Power came from the
ranks of practical pharmacy and was a graduate of
the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.
"He recognized the desire of community pharmacists
not to risk losing the identity of the
concept of 'pharmacy' with that of 'drugstore,' by award-
ing a pharmaceutical degree to persons
without practical experience," Sonnedecker stresses.
50 OHIO
HISTORY
tial in arousing the interest of
Purdue's President John H. Smart.29 Until at
least the turn of the century, one of
these patterns would dominate the devel-
opment of state university schools and
colleges of pharmacy: professional
pressure or-in the case of the state
universities of Michigan and Ohio--the
persistence of an individual professor
of chemistry. Moreover, the stability of
the state colleges and universities
proved their merit: of the eighteen state-
sponsored schools and colleges of
pharmacy founded between 1884 and 1900,
only three would fail;30 in
stark contrast, of the thirty-six private, proprietary,
association-based, or medical
school-based schools and colleges of pharmacy
founded during this same period, only
three survived intact, eight others hav-
ing merged or affiliated with public or
private universities.31
29. Smart, in turn, convinced Hurty to
serve as professor of pharmacy in the new School for
at least two years. Hurty came to
Lafayette twice each week and gave practical instruction in
pharmacy and in the art of dispensing
medicines and filling prescriptions, which culminated in
1889 with the development of the first
course in dispensing pharmacy taught in the United
States. George Spitzer, "History of
Purdue University School of Pharmacy," unpublished
manuscript, Lafayette, Indiana, [1929],
1-2, 5 and 7, Kremers Reference Files, F. B. Power
Pharmaceutical Library, University of
Wisconsin School of Pharmacy, Madison, Wisconsin
[hereinafter referred to as
"Kremers Reference Files"]. Also see [Robert W. Babcock], A
Brief Account of the First Fifty
Years of Pharmacy Education at Purdue, 1884-1934 (Lafayette,
1934), 6.
30. The state-supported schools and
colleges are Purdue University (1884), the University of
Iowa (1885), the University of Kansas
(1885), Ohio State University (1885), South Dakota
State University (1888), the University
of Minnesota (1892), the University of Oklahoma
(1893), the University of Texas (1893),
the University of Washington (1894), Auburn
University (1895), the University of
Illinois, incorporating the Chicago College of Pharmacy
(1896), Washington State University
(1896), the University of North Carolina (1897), Oregon
State University (1898), and the
University of Tennessee (1898). The three unsuccessful state-
supported schools and colleges were the
University of Colorado (1884?-85?), the University of
Virginia (1887?-98?), and the University
of Maine (1895-1919). Compiled from Sonnedecker,
Kremers and Urdang's History of
Pharmacy, 384-85; and Sonnedecker,
"American
Pharmaceutical Education Before
1900," 83, 93, 117, and 119.
31. The three surviving schools and
colleges are Ohio Northern University, formerly Ohio
Normal University (1884); Ferris State
College, formerly Ferris Institute (1893); and the
Medical College of Virginia (1897). The
eight surviving merged or affiliated schools and col-
leges are the Iowa College of Pharmacy
(1882), affiliated with Drake University in 1886; the
Kansas City College of Pharmacy (1885),
affiliated with Lincoln and Lee University in 1927
and, later, with the University of
Kansas City in 1943; the Buffalo College of Pharmacy (1886),
affiliated with the University of
Buffalo-now the State University of New York at Buffalo-
in 1923; the Illinois College of
Pharmacy of Northwestern University (1886), absorbed by the
University of Illinois in 1917; Scio
College (1887), amalgamated with the Pittsburgh College of
Pharmacy in 1908; the Brooklyn College
of Pharmacy (1891)-now the Arnold and Marie
Schwartz College of Pharmacy-affiliated
with Long Island University in 1929; the New
Jersey College of Pharmacy (1892),
amalgamated with Rutgers University in 1927; and the
University College of Medicine at
Richmond (1893), amalgamated with Virginia School of
Pharmacy at the Medical College of
Virginia in 1913. Compiled from Sonnedecker, Kremers
and Urdang's History of Pharmacy, 384-85; and Sonnedecker, "American Pharmaceutical
Education Before 1900," 87, 97-98,
108, and 110.
Pharmaceutical Education
51
Pharmaceutical Education in Ohio
Before 1884
Before the Civil War, the practice of
pharmacy in Ohio was by and large
unprofessionalized. There was no
statewide organization of practitioners be-
yond the nucleus created by the
Cincinnati College of Pharmacy in 1850, and
there was no state or local pharmacy
practice acts. Most importantly, there
was no formal instruction available in
pharmacy from either local associa-
tions or institutions of higher
learning. As in most parts of the country at
the time, the Ohio youth who wanted to
learn pharmacy would apprentice
himself to the operator of a drug shop
for as long as he thought necessary be-
fore going out on his own. A more
aspiring youth might make his way to
an urban center, such as Cincinnati or
Cleveland, where a handful of primarily
foreign-trained master apothecaries
could offer pharmacy apprenticeships at a
higher level. After the Civil War,
however, the pace of professionalization in
Ohio pharmacy increased as a steady
rate.
Baldwin University. The earliest instruction in pharmacy in the United
States under regular academic conditions32
emerged at Baldwin University in
Berea in 1865. The institution had
originated in 1844 as Baldwin Institute,
the gift of Berea grindstone
manufacturer John Baldwin to the Northern Ohio
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. In 1855, university powers
were granted.33 The 1865
catalog of the University described the course of
study in the new College of Pharmacy as
"regular recitation in Chemistry,
with lectures in the departments of
Professional Ethics, Botany, Materia
Medica and Practical Pharmacy, . . .
with experiments and practical illustra-
tions of the various pharmaceutical
processes of the laboratory." In addition,
instruction would also be given in
Practical and Analytical Chemistry and in
Photographic Chemistry, "embracing
the history of the Photographic process
and the manufacture of all
chemicals." The catalog spoke glowingly of
"numerous experiments in which the
students will take part ... to make the
instruction as particularly useful as
possible" and of "instruction in pharma-
ceutical operations and manipulations in
the manufacture of chemicals and
other preparations, in extemporaneous
pharmacy and in the dispensing of
32. The pharmacy curriculum established
in 1838 within the Medical College of Louisiana at
New Orleans and, after 1847, as part of
the University of Louisiana (now Tulane University)
claims historical priority in
instruction, but not as a separately constituted school or college of
pharmacy. The Louisiana course did not
flourish and probably was not well integrated with
either the Medical Department or the
parent University during most of the nineteenth century.
See John P. Dyer, Tulane: The
Biography of a University, 1834-1965 (New York, 1966), 21,
70n, and 134.
33. See W[illiam] O[xley] Thompson,
"Baldwin University and German Wallace College,
Berea, Cuyahoga County, Founded
1845," in James J. Burns, Educational History of Ohio
(Columbus, 1905), 343-44; and
"Baldwin University," in A History of Education in the State of
Ohio (Columbus, 1876), 234-35.
52 OHIO
HISTORY
medicine on prescription or
otherwise."34 Not the least interesting feature of
Baldwin's College of Pharmacy was its
practice of conferring the degree of
"Bachelor of Medicine,"
although those students not continuing for the M.D.
degree ordinarily entered the practice
of pharmacy.35 The University graduated
only thirty-three students over the next
ten years. There is no record of phar-
macy graduates or instructors after
1876, the University apparently having
closed its pioneering College because of
insufficient enrollment.36
Cincinnati College of Pharmacy. Meanwhile, the Cincinnati College of
Pharmacy had begun a regular systematic
course in pharmacy in 1871, culmi-
nating two decades of plans and dreams.
In 1851, for example, the members
of the College reported their intention
of "opening their School this session";
in 1858, the leadership made bold plans
for an "annual course of lectures for
Students in Pharmacy, in connection with
the lectures of the Ohio Medical
College." Neither plan came to
fruition.37 Sometime during the early
1860s, however, and perhaps before, the
College began to provide "personal
and indirect" monthly roundtable
discussions and home instruction in phar-
macy and materia medica by Edward S.
Wayne, in theoretical pharmacy by
William B. Chapman, and in theoretical
chemistry by Adolph Fennel. The
course covered three years, partly at the
small College room in Gordon's Hall
and partly at the homes of the
"faculty"; diplomas or certificates were not
given.38 This tentative
beginning was destroyed by the Civil War. The
College was revived as a professional
association in October, 1871, and regu-
lar instruction began that same
December, initially following the earlier in
34. Quoted by F[rederick] Roehm, Dean of
Baldwin-Wallace College in a letter to Edward
Kremers, December 24, 1931, Kremers
Reference Files. Adjusting the claims to probable
reality, we may tentatively interpret
them as meaning there were some demonstration experi-
ments. If there were regular laboratory
instruction, it would antedate the earliest teaching lab-
oratories known at the University of
Michigan (1868) and at the Philadelphia College of
Pharmacy (1870). See Sonnedecker,
"The College of Pharmacy During 75 Years at Ohio
State University," 9.
35. Mrs. Jon. Baldwin, Jr., ed., Alumni
Record of Baldwin University, 1846-1890 (Berea,
1890), 38-43, 46, 48-52, 55, and 57,
Kremers Reference Files.
36. Ibid., 14; and Crisfield Johnson,
comp., History of Cuyahoga County, Ohio (Philadelphia,
1879), 202.
37. [William Procter, Jr.],
"Editorial: Schools of Pharmacy," American Journal of
Pharmacy, 23 (October, 1851), 391; and Frederick Stearns,
"Report on the Progress of
Pharmacy: Education," Proceedings
of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 7 (1858),
88. "There is cause to fear that
our Cincinnati brethren have become lukewarm and lifeless as
regards the advancement of the College
of Pharmacy," Procter remarked the following year.
"The attempts hitherto made to get
up a school of pharmacy have proved unsuccessful."
William Procter, Jr., "Report on
the Progress of Pharmacy: Pharmaceutical Associations and
Education," Proceedings of the
American Pharmaceutical Association, 8 (1859), 104. Cited by
Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 65 and 99.
38. Cha[rle]s T. P. Fennel,
"Cincinnati College of Pharmacy," in The Graduate [for] 1925,
edited by David Uhlfelder (Cincinnati,
1925), 19.
Pharmaceutical Education 53 |
formal roundtable format that had proved so popular.39 The first faculty in- cluded Wayne, Fennel, J. H. Judge, M.D., who taught chemistry, and F. H. Renz, who taught botany. "Whatever appealed as serviceable to a young man, ethically or professionally, was taught by these masters of pharmacy, all of whom were expert, practical apothecaries," the redoubtable John Uri Lloyd recalled with affection over half a century later. "The entire gauntlet in both operative and theoretical pharmacy was the field of these self-sacrificing servants."40 The College granted its first degree of "Graduate of Pharmacy" in
39. Harold C. Freking, "Gleanings from the Early History of the Cincinnati College of Pharmacy," American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 12 (July, 1948), 414. 40. John Uri Lloyd, "The College: Some Recollections and Notes," in The Graduate [for] 1925, 25. As students increased in numbers, the roundtable format was abandoned and "more |
54 OHIO
HISTORY
1873. In 1877, the College obtained the
first affiliation of its school with
the University of Cincinnati; in 1886,
the school became a "department" of
the University in the sense that its
students could draw upon its course offer-
ings without paying extra fees. This
affiliation was a loose one, however;
the character and administrative control
of the school remained fundamentally
the same until a formal affiliation
agreement was approved in 1945.41
Cleveland School of Pharmacy. The demise of pharmacy instruction at
Baldwin University probably paved the
way for the enthusiastic launching of
an independent Cleveland School of
Pharmacy by the Cleveland
Pharmaceutical Association in 1882.
Instruction began with a modest series
of twenty weekly lectures on
pharmaceutical chemistry by Nathan
Rosenwasser, a chemist with Strong, Cobb
& Company, but developed
rapidly. By 1885, the curriculum had
expanded to a program of 110 graded
lectures extended over a period of two
years, chemistry now being taught by
C. W. Kolbe, M.D., Ph.D., and pharmacy
being taught by Henry W.
Stecher, Ph.C.42 Curiously,
the School conferred no degree, Ohio law pro-
viding that no school might do so that
did not possess property amounting to
at least $5,000. In fact, at the time,
the School had no such ambition, being
content to prepare students for a final
year at either the Cincinnati College of
Pharmacy or the Buffalo College of
Pharmacy, both of which institutions
permitted the School's graduates to
enter their senior classes without further
examination. "The Cleveland School
is, and desires to be regarded as, only a
Preparatory School," its 1889 catalog declared, describing the School rather
whimsically as "a 'Jolly boat' in
the wake of the 'Big steamers."'43 In 1895,
however, the School added laboratory
instruction, and two years later finally
conferred the degree of
"Pharmaceutical Chemist" upon graduates of its new
formal though not more serviceable
processes were instituted."
41. Freking, op. cit., 416 and 418; and
"Pharmaceutical Colleges and Associations: The
Cincinnati College of Pharmacy," American
Journal of Pharmacy, 58 (October, 1886), 526-27.
Cited by Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 100. Also see
"Cincinnati College of Pharmacy
Affiliates With University," American Druggist, 112
(December, 1945), 142. Up to 1905, the
College had graduated 696 students. "List of Alumni
of the Cincinnati College of
Pharmacy," in The Graduate [for] 1925, 139-56.
42. Carl Winter, "The Cleveland
School of Pharmacy: An Historical Sketch," Midland
Druggist and Pharmaceutical Review, 45 (January, 1911), 18-19. The Cleveland
Pharmaceutical Association had been
organized only two years earlier, in 1880. E. A.
Schellentrager, Association president at
the time, later recalled wondering "whether the young
men then engaged in our city pharmacies
. . . would be able to successfully cope with the re-
quirements of the proposed [Ohio]
pharmacy law." He urged the Association to establish the
School to aid those "who felt the
need of systematic training but were loath to give up their sit-
uations in order to seek pharmaceutical
education elsewhere." E. A. Schellentrager, "The
Cleveland School of Pharmacy," Merck's
Market Report, 1 (July, 1892), 13.
43. Seventh Annual Announcement of
the Cleveland School of Pharmacy, for the Session of
1888-89 (Cleveland, 1888), 17, Kremers Reference Files.
Pharmaceutical Education
55
three-year graded course.44 In
1908, the School became affiliated with
Western Reserve University and, in 1918,
a formal School of Pharmacy of
the University until the School itself
was discontinued in 1949.45
In 1884, therefore, Ohio's drug clerks
and apprentices could choose between
but two formal courses in pharmacy, both
of which were under the control of
the local pharmaceutical associations in
the state's largest metropolitan cen-
ters: the two-year graded curriculum
offered by the Cincinnati College of
Pharmacy in loose affiliation with the
University of Cincinnati and the initial
course of twenty lectures offered by the
Cleveland College of Pharmacy.
While these courses seemed more
representative of earlier educational efforts
by other local associations of
practitioners in other states than the bold and
innovative pharmacy curricula then being
offered by state universities in
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Indiana, they
do underscore the extreme importance
of the presence of a state pharmacy
practice act in encouraging the develop-
ment of pharmaceutical education: in the
two decades following the passage
of a state-wide pharmacy practice act in
Ohio, no less than six college- and
university-based pharmacy curricula
would be introduced within the state.
The 1884 Pharmacy Practice Act and an
Educational Response
As noted above, outside of an unpopular
1852 act regulating the sale of
poisons in Ohio,46 there was
no legislation regulating the practice of phar-
44. Winter, op. cit., 19-20. Between
1884 and 1904, the Cleveland school graduated a total
of 281 students, including 76 from the
"Junior Course," discontinued in 1890-91, 125 from the
"Senior Course," discontinued
in 1895-96, 75 with the degree of "Pharmaceutical Chemistry,"
and one 1904 graduate with the degree of
"Doctor of Pharmacy." 16th Annual Announcement,
Cleveland School of Pharmacy, Session
of 1897-98 (Cleveland, 1897), 19-22;
and 23rd Annual
Announcement, Cleveland School of
Pharmacy, Session of 1904-1905 (Cleveland,
1904), 15-
16, Kremers Reference Files.
45. "Western Reserve University,
The School of Pharmacy," [May, 1928], 3-4, Kremers
Reference Files. Between 1908 and 1918,
the business management of the School remained
under the control of a board of trustees
elected by the Cleveland Retail Druggists' Association.
Also see [Rufus A. Lyman],
"Miscellaneous Items of Interest: President W. G. Leutner of
Western Reserve University .. .," American
Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 13 (April,
1949), 408. The University's
administrative officers were unwilling to continue the School in
the face of the "critical financial
problems" it faced, "for to do so must mean the lowering of
standards that would inevitably be to
the discredit of both the university and the profession,"
Lyman reported sympathetically.
46. "An Act Regulating the Sale of
Poisons," Acts of a General Nature Passed by the Fiftieth
General Assembly of the State of
Ohio, L (Columbus, 1852), 167-68.
Apothecaries, druggists,
and others were required to maintain a
detailed register of poison sales to adults and could not
sell arsenic in pure form. The first
report of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical Association's
Committee on Pharmacy Law recommended
the amendment or abolishment of the law which it
considered "very illy adapted to
the purposes for which it was designed, and . . . a real source
of annoyance and discomfort to both
customers and to ourselves." Lewis C. Hopp, "Second
Annual Meeting of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association," Proceedings of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, 2 (1880), 12.
56 OHIO
HISTORY
macy until 1873. On May 5 of that year,
the Ohio General Assembly passed
an act "to regulate the practice of
Pharmacy in certain cities of the first class"
having a population exceeding 175,000.
The law plainly was meant to apply
only to Cincinnati, Ohio's largest city
whose population at the time exceeded
216,000.47 The law created a
Pharmaceutical Examining Board which regis-
tered proprietors currently engaged in
the "retail drug and apothecaries' busi-
ness" or those "who shall hold
the diploma of an incorporated college of
pharmacy" without an examination
for a one-time fee of five dollars and set
up a mechanism for examining others who
would later enter the business;
non-owners could become registered as
"qualified assistants" under similar
provisions.48 Despite a rapid
growth in Ohio's population over the next
decade, the law still applied only to
Cincinnati.49
On September 2, 1879, forty-five druggists
met in Columbus to form a
new state association, hoping to extend
the Cincinnati law's protection to
other parts of the state, and while the
lofty goals of the new association in-
cluded provisions "to elevate the
character of the Pharmaceutical Profession,
to unite the reputable Druggists of the
state, to foster the education of those
learning the art, to stimulate the
talent of those engaged in Pharmacy, and ul-
timately to restrict the sale of
Medicines to persons qualified for the Practice
of Pharmacy,"50 the
latter goal clearly took precedence. Practitioners in the
47. "An Act to Regulate the
Practice of Pharmacy in Certain Cities of the First Class, and for
Other Purposes," General and
Local Laws and Joint Resolutions Passed by the Sixtieth General
Assembly, LXX
(Columbus, 1873), 287-88. Cities of the first class had been defined by the
Ohio General Assembly in 1869 as having
a population of at least 20,000. Without the
175,000-population proviso, the 1873 act
would also have applied to Cleveland, Columbus,
Dayton, and Toledo. See "An Act to
Provide for the Organization and Government of
Municipal Corporations," Chapter I,
"Classification of Municipal Corporations," General and
Local Laws and Joint Resolutions
Passed by the Fifth-Eighth General Assembly, LXVI
(Columbus, 1869), 149-50; and
"Table XXVI.-Population of Places of 4,000 Inhabitants and
Over, by Nativity: 1880 and 1870,
Ohio," in U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office,
Compendium of the Tenth Census (June
1, 1880), rev. ed., Part I
(Washington, D.C., 1885),
460-61.
48. "An Act to Regulate the
Practice of Pharmacy in Certain Cities of the First Class, and for
Other Purposes," loc. cit.
Qualified assistants were to have at least two years apprenticeship
experience and attended "one full
course of lectures in chemistry, materia medica, and phar-
macy." Ibid., Section 6, 288.
49. By 1880, Cincinnati would grow to
over 255,000, Cleveland to over 160,000, and
Columbus and Toledo to over 50,000 each.
"Table XXVI.--Population of Places of 4,000
Inhabitants and Over, by Nativity: 1880
and 1870, Ohio," 460. In 1875, the Ohio General
Assembly would amend their 1873 act
slightly, establishing a procedure for examining quali-
fied assistants and removing the
restriction to the city of Cincinnati, but retained the 175,000
population requirement. "An Act to
Amend an Act Entitled 'An Act to Regulate the Practice
of Pharmacy, in Certain Cities of the
First Class, and for Other Purposes,' Passed May 5, 1873,"
General and Local Laws and Joint
Resolutions Passed by the Sixty-First General Assembly of
the State of Ohio, LXXII (Columbus, 1875), 16.
50. "List of Members," Proceedings
of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical Association, 1 (1879),
10; and T[homas] J. Casper,
"Minutes of the Meeting," ibid., 12. The meeting had been called
by Cleveland druggist Lewis C. Hopp, who
would become the first Permanent Secretary of the
Pharmaceutical Education
57
neighboring states of West Virginia,
Michigan, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania
had already organized their own state
pharmaceutical associations, and the
Kentucky association had already
agitated for and obtained a state pharmacy
practice act. In forming the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, Ohio's
druggists simply hoped "to check,
if possible, the influx of incompetent
druggists from other States, who
[regard] our fair State a 'Mecca' for their op-
erations."51
A Standing Committee on Pharmacy was
appointed at the 1879 meeting
and brought forth a simple
recommendation the following year "to have the
existing Pharmacy Act so amended as to
apply to all cities and towns of five
thousand inhabitants and over."
While the Association adopted the recom-
mendation, no concrete legislative
proposal was brought forth until 1882.
That year, Committee Chairman John A.
Nipgen of Chillicothe presented a
professionally drafted proposed law that
received the close scruitiny and, fi-
nally, the enthusiastic endorsement of
the Association. The proposal con-
tained an unusual provision which would
prevent "officers or teachers in any
school or college of pharmacy" from
serving on the Ohio Board of Pharmacy.
In the view of Association President
Isaac N. Reed, schools and colleges
should not be allowed to propose laws
that could curtail or hamstring the ef-
forts of state pharmaceutical
associations. "A proper apprenticeship, supple-
mented by a thorough college of pharmacy
course, is the true method for the
education of druggists," Reed
stated, "and the time is fast approaching [in]
which all schools of polytechnics will
be well patronized, without the aid of
cunning devices by their professors to
secure special legislation in their fa-
vor."52 As a further
slap at the Cincinnati college, absolutely no mention
was made of pharmaceutical education in
the proposed bill; any person over
eighteen years of age who had been
continuously engaged in compounding or
dispensing medicines on the
prescriptions of physicians in any retail drug
Association.
51. Sonnedecker, Kremers and Urdang's
History of Pharmacy, 379 and 381; and
Schellentrager, op. cit., 13. In 1882,
Association President Isaac N. Reed would declare that
"Ohio should no longer allow
herself to be made the caldron into which all pharmaceutical in-
competencies may be dumped."
I[saac] N. Reed, "President's Address," Proceedings of the
Ohio State Pharmaceutical
Association, 4 (1882), 14.
52. Hopp, op. cit., 12-13. The 1881
Committee on Pharmacy Laws was called upon, and not
having a report to present was
discharged. A new Committee was charged with preparing "a
draft of a Pharmacy Law" and having
it "printed and a copy sent to each member at the ex-
pense of the association." Lewis C.
Hopp, "Third Annual Meeting of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association," Proceedings
of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical Association, 3
(1881), 28 and 30. Also see J[ohn] A.
Nipgen, "Report of Committee on Pharmacy Laws,"
Proceedings of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, 4 (1882),
41; and Reed, op. cit., 15-
16. "I do not wish to be understood
as attempting to proclaim that colleges of pharmacy are
unnecessary institutions," Reed
added. "On the contrary, they are vital to the interests and real
progress of pharmacy, and should have
the co-operation and support of all State Associations."
58 OHIO
HISTORY
store in the United States was eligible
for examination for licensure.53 A
heavily amended version of the bill was
defeated by the Ohio House of
Representatives, and upon
reconsideration, referred to the Committee on
Medical Colleges and Societies where it
languished.54
In 1883, Association President D. C.
Peters, a Zanesville physician, urged
his listeners not to be discouraged.
There was "good reason to hope" that
with an increased membership in the
Association "our state law-givers will be
prevailed upon to afford such measures
of protection as justice to both phar-
macists and the people demand." He
recommended that the now-experienced
Committee on Pharmacy Laws be continued
and empowered to make what-
ever amendments would be necessary to
secure passage of the bill during the
next session of the Ohio General
Assembly "without changing the general
character and purpose of the bill."
Finally, he cannily suggested that
Association members in every country in
the state be mobilized as auxiliary
members of the Committee to lobby their
local representatives.55 Victory fi-
nally came on March 20, 1884; Governor
George Hoadly promptly appointed
the first five-member Board of Pharmacy,
which included Committee
Chairman Nipgen, who was subsequently
elected its first president.56 The
new law contained language assuring
Ohio's physicians the right to dispense
medications, permitting any retail
dealer to make or sell patent or proprietary
medicines, and allowing proprietors of
country stores to sell an astonishingly
wide variety of chemicals, drugs, and
drug-related items properly labeled by ei-
ther a pharmacist or a wholesale
druggist. The restrictive language prohibit-
ing educators from serving on the Board
of Pharmacy had disappeared, but no
mention of educational qualifications
for the practice of pharmacy had been
53. Nipgen, op. cit., 45. At the time,
the Pharmaceutical Examining Board of Cincinnati also
required graduates of the Cincinnati
College of Pharmacy to take an examination before ad-
mitting them to practice, an unusual
local extension of the 1873 law. Freking, op. cit., 418.
54. John A. Nipgen, "Report of the
Committee on Pharmacy Laws," Proceedings of the Ohio
State Pharmaceutical Association, 5 (1883), 36. "Your committee made every effort to
have
the bill again reported out of its
regular order, but without success," Nipgen reported.
"Considering all the disadvantages
they labored under, they see no cause for discouragement,
but urge the continuance of effort,
believing that success will surely follow."
55. D. C. Peters, "President's
Address," ibid., 12-13. Peters urged the Committee on
Pharmacy Laws to incorporate "a
provision exempting the regular graduates of accredited
colleges of pharmacy from the
contemplated examination by the State Board," but his recom-
mendation did not find favor among the
membership. See R. G. Williams, John Ruppert, and
M. D. Fulton, "Report of the
Committee on the President's Address," ibid., 40.
56. Philip H. Bruck, "Ohio Board of
Pharmacy," Proceedings of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, 6 (1884), 31. Nipgen's Committee on Pharmacy Law had
appar-
ently made peace with the Cincinnati
College of Pharmacy, which, "under the leadership of
Professor [John Uri] Lloyd, changed its
enmity into friendship, and its opposition into an earnest
and hearty support." John A. Nipgen, "Committee on Pharmacy
Laws," ibid., 29.
Significantly, the new Board also
included Edward S. Wayne, M.D., Professor at the Cincinnati
College and member of the Cincinnati
Pharmaceutical Examining Board. See Freking, op. cit.,
418-19.
Pharmaceutical Education
59
included.57 Nevertheless, it
was enough. "We have great reason to congratu-
late ourselves on the success of the
passage of our pharmacy bill," President
S. S. West enthused at the May, 1884,
meeting of the Association in
Cincinnati. "The law as it passed
may be considered to be as good, if not bet-
ter, than that of any of our sister
States, although it may not exactly suit the
fastidiousness of some of the druggists
of the State."58 By the following
May, 3,953 pharmacists and assistant
pharmacists had been registered by the
Ohio State Board of Pharmacy, 214 of
whom had passed an examination;
ironically, the new law had already
survived a "tincturing of dissatisfaction"
among "certain ones" who
sought to amend or repeal the legislation.59
Association President John Weyer
provided some carefully worded support for
pharmaceutical education, but never let
his listeners forget who was in charge
of deciding upon the educational
qualifications of Ohio's pharmacists. "By
legislation we can enforce education and
restrict the practice to persons prop-
erly qualified," Weyer stated.
"By education we can most permanently and ef-
fectually elevate the standard and
improve the science and art of Pharmacy. It
is, then, our plain duty to encourage
education, or to enforce it if we must."60
Ohio Northern University. The significance of the new pharmacy practice
act had not been lost on the teachers
and administrators at the North-Western
Ohio Normal School at Ada. Shortly after
the bill had been signed into law,
President Henry S. Lehr reasoned that if
pharmacy apprentices and drug clerks
were to be examined for their competency
as practitioners they would cer-
tainly seek schooling in certain topics.
He hurriedly made it known that a
"Department of Pharmacy" would
offer courses to those interested in prepar-
ing themselves for careers in pharmacy,
perhaps as early as the fall of 1884.
President Lehr counted on drawing upon a
preparatory medical course that had
57. "An Act to Amend Sections 4405,
4406, 4407, 4408, 4409, 4410, 4411, and 4412 of the
Revised Statues of Ohio," General
and Local Laws and Joint Resolutions Passed by the Sixty-
Sixth General Assembly, LXXXI (Columbus, 1884), 61-65.
58. S. S. West, "President's
Address," Proceedings of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical
Association, 6 (1884), 13. West later introduced G. P. Englehard,
editor of the Chicago-based
trade paper The Druggist, who had
been instrumental in securing the passage of the Illinois
pharmacy practice act in 1881. Englehard
considered the new Ohio law "one which has no
superior, and one which might be copied
by other States with profit." G. P. Englehard,
"Address," ibid., 41.
59. Philip H. Bruck, "Ohio Board of
Pharmacy Report," Proceedings of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, 7 (1885), 26. The number also included 178 pharmacists
and as-
sistant pharmacists who had been
previously registered by the Cincinnati Pharmaceutical
Examining Board. Also see Geo[rge] L.
Hechler et al., "Committee on Pharmacy Laws," ibid.,
23. The dissatisfaction "was caused
by selfishness," Hechler reported, and while the opposi-
tion at first seemed "quite
formidable," it finally "resolved itself into a minority of
insignificant
proportions, which was overcome by
watchfulness and perseverance on [the] part of your
committee."
60. John Weyer, "President's
Address," ibid., 11. Weyer saw education as "a most sure
means of success."
60 OHIO
HISTORY
been organized two years earlier.61
By the fall of 1885, the "increasing de-
mands of students wishing to engage in
the study of Pharmacy" led the fac-
ulty of the newly renamed Ohio Normal
University to offer a "distinct course"
of study in theoretical pharmacy,
theoretical and practical chemistry, botany,
materia medica, toxicology, and
pharmaceutical preparations, the course itself
being extended over three terms of ten
weeks each.62 The new Department
graduated its first class of six
students in 1887. By that fall, the "wonderful
success" of the students had
induced the three-man faculty to "enlarge and
greatly extend the course" to forty
weeks, "making it second to none."63 An
"original thesis on some subject
relative to the subject of Pharmacy" was
added to the requirements for graduation
in 1889, and by 1894, pharmacy stu-
dents attending the lectures,
laboratories, and recitations at Ada could choose
between the one-year, forty-week course
leading to the degree of
"Pharmaceutical Graduate"
(Ph.G.) or an extended two-year course leading to
the degree of "Pharmaceutical
Chemist" (Ph.C.). The second forty-week year
could be divided into two twenty-week terms,
much of the work consisting of
elective courses.64
61. Charles O. Lee, "Early Years of
the Ohio Northern College of Pharmacy," The Ampul,
12 (Fall, 1961), 2; and
"Medical," Annual Catalogue of the Teachers and Students of the
North-
Western Ohio Normal School, and
Business College, for the School Year 1882-83, and
Announcements for 1883-84 (Ada, 1883), 26, Rare Books-Archives Room, Heterick
Memorial
Library, Ohio Northern University, Ada,
Ohio [hereinafter referred to as "Ohio Northern
Archives"]. Students pursuing the
preparatory medical course were "furnished the very best
opportunities in the study of Botany
[and] Chemistry as well as Anatomy and Physiology and
have the additional advantages of
pursuing literary studies if they wish."
62. "School of Pharmacy," Sixteenth
Annual Catalogue of the Teachers and Students of the
Ohio Normal University and Commercial
College, for the School Year 1885-86, and
Announcements for 1886-87 (Columbus, 1886), 30-31, Ohio Northern Archives.
Students en-
tering the new School were
"expected to have a good general knowledge of the common
branches." The name change had
taken effect the previous year, "owing to the request and
urging of many of our students."
See "History," Fifteenth Annual Catalogue of the Teachers
and Students of the Ohio Normal
University and Commercial College, for the School Year 1884-
85, and Announcements for 1885-86 (Columbus, 1885), 32, Ohio Northern Archives.
63. "Graduates of 1887:
Pharmaceutical" and "Department of Pharmacy," Seventeenth
Annual Catalogue of the Teachers and
Students of the Ohio Normal University and Commercial
College, for the School Year 1886-87,
and Announcements for 1887-88
(Cincinnati, 1887), 43
and 31, Ohio Northern Archives. The
original faculty included M. J. Ewing, M.S., who taught
theoretical and practical chemistry,
Charles S. Ashbrook, Ph.G., who taught theoretical and
practical pharmacy and materia medica
and toxicology, and J. G. Park, A.M., who taught
botany and microscopy.
64. "Department of Pharmacy:
Requirements for Graduation," Twentieth Annual Catalogue
of the Teachers and Students of the
Ohio Normal University and Commercial College, for the
School Year 1889-90 and Announcements
for 1890-91 (Columbus, 1890), 37, Ohio
Northern
Archives. The Department eliminated
"everything we do not consider absolutely necessary to
a complete and comprehensive knowledge
of practical, every-day pharmacy," thus saving its
students "at least one year's time
and expense." Ibid., 35. A provision exempting students who
passed the State Board of Pharmacy
examination from their final examinations in the
Department was reversed the following
year. See "Department of Pharmacy: Requirements
for Graduation in This Department,"
Twenty-first Annual Catalogue of the Teachers and
Pharmaceutical Education 61
The University itself, which had started
out as a proprietary venture in
1871, became affiliated with the
Methodist Episcopal Church in 1898.
Believing that "there can be no
true education where the moral and religious
natures of the students are
neglected," daily attendance at chapel was expected
and students were strongly encouraged to
seek room and board with the citi-
zens of Ada, dormitory living being
considered "not conducive to good man-
ners, health, or morality." The
University assumed its present name, Ohio
Northern University, in 1904.65 Although
the University itself became ex-
tremely conservative under its new
administration, the Department of
Pharmacy continued to pursue a
remarkably vigorous program, graduating
over 1,044 students during the first
twenty years of its existence, adding an
optional "Pharmaceutical
Doctor" (Pharm.D.) degree in 1906 for graduates of
its two-year program. The new program
required an additional twenty weeks
of work "specializing on formulae
and assaying of crude drugs," but there is
no record of the degree ever being
conferred.66
Students of the Ohio Normal
University and Commercial College, for the School Year 1890-91,
and Announcements for 1891-92 (Akron, 1891), 42. Also see "Department of
Pharmacy:
Special Course: Degree of Pharmaceutical
Chemist," Twenty-fifth Annual Catalogue of the
Teachers and Students of the Ohio
Normal University and Commercial College, for the School
Year 1894-95, and Announcements for
1895-96 (Ada, 1895), 49-50, Ohio
Northern Archives.
The Catalogue stressed that the
Department's diploma was "accepted in lieu of the first year's
lectures by the leading medical
colleges." "Department of Pharmacy: Advantages," Twenty-
fourth Annual Catalogue of the
Teachers and Students of the Ohio Normal University and
Commercial College, for the School
Year 1893-94, and Announcements for 1894-95 (Akron,
1894), 47, Ohio Northern Archives.
65. W[illiam] O[xley] Thompson,
"Ohio Northern University, Ada, Hardin County, Founded
1871," in Burns, op. cit., 353.
Lehr "sought to make the school an open opportunity to all
classes at all times," Thompson
noted. "The result was that many hundreds found the Ohio
Normal University an open door when
other schools were closed to them." Also see "Home
Care and Comfort," Twenty-Ninth
Annual Catalogue of the Trustees, Teachers and Students of
the Ohio Normal University .. . for the School Year, 1898-99 and Announcements for
1899-
1900 (Ada, 1899), 8; and "Moral and Religious
Culture," Thirty-fourth Annual Catalogue of the
Teachers and Students of the Ohio
Normal University and Commercial College, for the School
Year 1903-04 and Announcements for
1904-05 (Ada, 1905), 6, Ohio Northern
Archives. The
extreme conservatism of the University
was reflected in the attitudes of its students even be-
fore the institution became
denominational. In 1890, a lay magazine reported the sight-unseen
purchase and subsequent unveiling of a
nude statue of Apollo, which caused "wild screams
and a precipitate scattering of the
students who fled in all directions, leaving the god master of
the situation." The students
responded by sewing a pair of fine velvet knee breeches to clothe
the offending statue. Quoted by Mary
Cable in American Manners and Morals (New York,
1969), 271.
66. "College of Pharmacy: Special
Courses," Thirty-sixth Annual Catalogue, Ohio Northern
University: The Trustees, Teachers
and Students for the School Year 1906-07, with the
Announcements for 1907-1908 (Ada, 1906), 5-6, Ohio Northern Archives. Candidates for
the
degree were required to be twenty-one
years of age, a high school graduate, and a graduate of
Ohio Northern's College of Pharmacy, as
well as having completed "four years of practical
experience in a store where
prescriptions are filled." Also see Lewis C. Benton and Charles
O. Lee, "The Early Years of the
Ohio Northern University College of Pharmacy-II," The
Ampul, 14 (Spring, 1964), 14; and Charles O. Lee, "The
Early Years of the Ohio Northern
University College of
Pharmacy-III," The Ampul, 15 (Fall, 1964), 6.
62 OHIO
HISTORY
This rejection of an early attempt to
proffer a professional doctorate in
pharmacy may be seen as a realistic
assessment of the pharmaceutical tenor of
the times. The Ohio State Board of
Pharmacy did not require one year of high
school as a prerequisite to a required,
two-year graded course of instruction of
not less than twenty-six weeks per year
until 1905; given this perspective and
the self-assured, even antischolastic,
attitude of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical
Association, the decision by the Ohio
State University in 1886 to launch a
demanding and pioneering three-year
course leading to the Ph.G. degree must
have been seen by practitioners as
daring, if not foolhardy.
Ohio State University. While the founding of formal instruction in phar-
macy at Ohio State University in 1885
was also related to the passage of the
Ohio pharmacy practice act, the impetus
for pharmacy instruction at Ohio
State came from within the faculty of
the University. One faculty member in
particular laid the groundwork for the
College of Pharmacy at Ohio State:
Professor Sidney A. Norton, M.D., Ph.D.
Norton was serving as acting professor
of physics at Union College in New
York when he was one of seven men called
to constitute the first faculty of
the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical
College in 1873. As Professor of
General and Applied Chemistry, Norton
was a physician-chemist of unusually
wide interests who had studied chemistry
in Bonn, Leipsic, and Heidelberg,
and would have been aware of the
European tradition that closely linked
pharmacy and chemistry in practice and
in the universities.67 At Ohio State,
this linkage was explicit from the very
first days of instruction.
For the first two years, all students
were required to take a prescribed course
of study that included a full year of
general chemistry, taught mainly by lec-
tures and recitations, and covering
inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry,
and "applications of Chemistry to
the Arts." A "special course" in chemistry
extended through two additional years,
and covered qualitative and quantitative
analysis, the latter of which included
"special studies in Chemistry applied to
Pharmacy, to Agriculture, to Manufactures,
and to the Arts."68
Norton himself was a stern but dedicated
teacher who demanded the best
67. Alexis Cope, History of the Ohio
State University, Vol. I, 1870-1910, edited by Thomas
C. Mendenhall (Columbus, 1920), 66-67.
Norton received his A.B. and A.M. degrees from
Union College in 1856 and 1859, his M.D.
from Miami Medical College in 1869, his Ph.D. from
Kenyon College in 1878, and his LL.D.
from Wooster University in 1881. Norton had served
as an instructor in natural science in
the Cleveland High Schools (1857-66), teacher of natural
science at Mt. Auburn College (1866-72),
and professor of chemistry at Miami Medical
College (1867-72) before returning to
Union College in 1872 as acting professor of physics.
68. Third Annual Report of the
Trustees of the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, to
the Governor of the State (Columbus, 1877), 48; and "Degrees and Courses of
Study," Circular
and Catalogue of the Ohio
Agricultural and Mechanical College, For 1873-74 (Columbus,
1874), 9 and 13. The course in
qualitative analysis included reactions of single bases and
acids, blowpipe and flame reactions,
determination of mixtures, and blowpipe mineralogy.
Ibid., 12.
Pharmaceutical Education
63
from his students and usually got it. He
often loaned his personal books and
papers to students to study and even
designed a ventilation system for
University Hall, which was ill-adapted
for laboratory instruction in chem-
istry.69 In 1876, Norton gave
a detailed account of his teaching methods in
general chemistry:
The various themes, as they arise, are
first studied in the text-book and such other
works as the student has at his command.
He is then required to make out for the
most important topics written exercises
in which a carefully methodized order is
followed. Topics, too briefly considered
in the text-book or difficult of compre-
hension, are taken up and elucidated by
lectures. Most of these lectures are accom-
panied by a written syllabus, which the
student has at his disposal for reference
and which he is allowed to copy.... The
lectures and the text-book are illustrated
by a very complete suite of experiments.
. . . [and are] continually reinforced by
recitation and examination.
Norton took pains to point out how
special studies in quantitative analysis
were modified to meet the needs of
individual students. "Care has been taken
to adapt the laboratory work, as far as
possible to the use which the student
expects to make of chemistry in after
life," Norton stressed, noting that "one
of the pupils in the laboratory, who
intended to become a druggist, was aided
in making various researches in
pharmacy."70
By 1879, the number of students enrolled
in the advanced courses had in-
creased from seven to twenty-nine, and
Norton was convinced he was on the
right track. He pressed for additional
work in synthetic chemistry and to be
allowed a special sum of money for the
purchase of the requisite material.
"If, in this material, a portion
were of the substances used in pharmacy, our
students could, with little trouble to
themselves, make a fair beginning in
what is called Pharmaceutical
Chemistry," Norton suggested. "Several of our
69. See Sidney A. Norton,
"Department Reports: Chemistry," in Fifth Annual
Report of the
Board of Trustees of the Ohio
Agricultural and Mechanical College, to the Governor of the State
of Ohio. For the Year 1875 (Columbus, 1876), 52-53; and "Department Reports:
Chemistry," in
Sixth Annual Report of the Board of
Trustees of the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College,
to the Governor of the State of Ohio,
For the Year 1876 (Columbus, 1877),
73-74. "Two and
one-half hours' work, daily, for two
years, is not sufficient time for attaining anything like a
mastery of analytical chemistry,"
Norton complained in 1880. "I would suggest that notice be
made, on graduation, of the degree of
excellence attained by the student. I am certainly mor-
tified at being compelled to accept the
minimum of attainment for passing in chemistry."
Sidney A. Norton, in "Department
Reports: Chemistry," Tenth Annual Report of the Board of
Trustees of the Ohio State
University, to the Governor of the State of Ohio, For the Year 1880
(Columbus, 1881), 23. In 1920, colleague
Thomas C. Mendenhall recalled that Norton "taught
chemistry as an exact science and the
paths of least resistance did not lead through his course."
Quoted by James E. Pollard, History
of the Ohio State University: The Story of its First
Seventy-Five Years, 1873-1948 (Columbus, 1952), 26.
70. Sidney A. Norton, "Department
Reports: Chemistry," in Sixth Annual Report of the
Board of Trustees . . . For
the Year 1876, 70-71. Norton added
that the student's research
"would have been largely extended
had his plans allowed his longer continuance with us."
64 OHIO HISTORY |
|
studentshave left us to obtain special instruction in pharmacy elsewhere; and I think if we were to give a few additional facilities in this direction, it would be considered an advantage by quite a number, and, perhaps, all that they de- sire in this department."71 Norton undoubtedly was aware that Albert B. Prescott, a physician and chemist like himself, had built a widely discussed and successful pharmacy curriculum a decade earlier at the University of Michigan on the foundation of established chemical facilities, and pressed the point at every opportunity. In 1881, for example, he was persuaded that "it is for the welfare of the University to offer as many special courses as our facilities for instruction warrant." The following year, he noted that the number of students who were preparing to become pharmacists or physicians was "steadily increasing," and suggested that "it would be well to provide additional inducement for this class by a somewhat extended course in pharmacy and in materia medica."
71. Sidney A. Norton, "Department Reports: Chemistry," in Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University, to the Governor of the State of Ohio, For the Year 1879 (Columbus, 1879), 27. "No work in chemistry is more delightful to the young chemist than the making of preparations," Norton remarked enthusiastically, adding that "it can not be left out of a complete course of instruction in the science." Ibid., 26. |
Pharmaceutical Education
65
"The various laboratories of the
University offered unusual facilities for the
collateral studies required," he
continued, "and I am moreover convinced that
there is a growing demand for young men
who have made such special prepa-
rations."72
In 1883, restless after four years of
delay, Norton took the first concrete
step toward establishing a pharmacy
curriculum by encouraging his assistant,
David O'Brine, to conduct a
"voluntary class in Materia Medica." Three of
O'Brine's students, all who applied,
passed the first examination conducted by
the Ohio State Board of Pharmacy on May
12, 1884.73 "This experiment in-
dicates," Norton reported in
November, "that a field is open in this direction
to the University," adding that,
"if suitable facilities were offered, it would be
easy to obtain the service of a
competent pharmacist at a nominal salary,
who, by supplementing the work of our
present force of instructors, could
easily arrange a course of study which
would satisfy the requirements of the
State Board of Pharmacy." In his
zeal, Norton stretched the truth slightly by
concluding that the University should
undertake this work "because the State
requires that young men intending to
become druggists, should pursue a
course of study in Science, but has made
no provision for it."74 Nor did he
say that evidence was fast accumulating
in other states suggesting that state
boards of pharmacy were not likely to
disqualify a self-made and self-taught
candidate if he or she evidenced
tolerable minimal knowledge and safety for
professional practice.
Nevertheless, President William A. Scott
was convinced. In his 1884 re-
port to the Board of Trustees, Scott called
for new departments, new men, and
new buildings. "Departments of
industrial art, architecture, pharmacy, politi-
72. Sidney A. Norton, "Department
Reports: Chemistry," in Eleventh Annual Report of the
Board of Trustees of the Ohio State
University, to the Governor of the State of Ohio, For the
Year 1881 (Columbus, 1882), 23; and "Department Reports:
Chemistry," in Twelfth Annual
Report of the Board of Trustees of
the Ohio State University to the Governor [of the State of
Ohio, For the Year 1882 (Columbus, 1883), 31. In 1881, Norton remarked that it
was out of
place for him to "estimate the
so-called educational value of such special, and thereby one-
sided courses," but concluded that
such specialties were needed. "We should do our part to
equip them as well as may be
profitable."
73. Sidney A. Norton, "Department
Reports: Chemistry," in Fourteenth Annual Report of
the Board of Trustees of the Ohio
State University, to the Governor of the State of
Ohio, For the
Year 1884 (Columbus, 1884), 32. The successful candidates appear
to be Azor Thurston of
Grand Rapids, Ohio, who was registered
as a pharmacist, and Cyrus B. Martin and William C.
Mills of Columbus, who were registered
as assistant pharmacists. Only 27 of the 36 candidates
were able to pass the examination. See
Bruck, "Ohio Board of Pharmacy," 32, cf. "Record of
Studies-Collegiate Department,"
Vol. I: 1881-1884, 190, 91, and
104, in Ohio State
University Archives, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio.
74. Norton, "Department Reports:
Chemistry," in Fourteenth Annual Report of the
Board of
Trustees ... For the
Year 1884, loc. cit. Norton may have
been thinking of the 1873 Ohio law
which exempted graduates from the
incorporated colleges of pharmacy from taking an exami-
nation from the Cincinnati-based
Pharmaceutical Examining Board. The 1884 law made no
mention of formal academic preparation
for the practice of pharmacy.
66 OHIO
HISTORY
cal and social science, rhetoric and
oratory, and the science of teaching, ought
to be created as soon as the means at
your command will admit."75 Norton
himself appeared before the Board on
November 12 "in reference to establish-
ing a course of pharmacy at the chemical
department." The matter lay dor-
mant for seven months; on June 24, 1885,
however, a series of events began
to unfold rapidly. The Board formed a
committee consisting of Scott and
Board Chairman Henry J. Booth, who were
directed to consult with Norton in
reference to establishing a school of
pharmacy, and appropriated the sum of
$200 for that purpose. On September 3,
the committee reported that they had
decided that such a school should be
established, and that they had employed a
local wholesale druggist, George B.
Kauffman, as "lecturer in pharmacy."76
A scant two weeks later, on September
17, the school opened with ten stu-
dents in attendance, representing about
three percent of the 319 students then
on campus.77
Scott seemed pleased by the modest
beginnings. In November, he reported
to the Board that "the way now
seems open to offer much more than was first
contemplated," and held out the
prospect of "a full course of study to be com-
pleted with a degree" before the
opening of the 1886-87 academic year.
"When this decisive step has been
taken, and made known to the public, a
good number of men may be expected to
apply for admission." Norton
agreed, describing the program as
"a sort of entering wedge for a full and
75. William H. Scott, "Annual
Report of the President for 1883-4," in ibid., 26. "I make this
extended enumeration of wants in order
to emphasize the greatness of the work that is before
us," Scott continued. "It is
necessary that we should devise large plans and put forth united and
earnest efforts."
76. T[homas] J. Godfrey, "Record of
Proceedings of the Board of Trustees of Ohio State
University," in Fifteenth Annual
Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University, to
the Governor of the State of Ohio,
For the Year 1885 (Columbus, 1886),
94, 110, and 112. In
his summary report to Governor George
Hoadly, Board Secretary Alexis Cope pointed out that
almost all the branches necessary to be
taught in such a school were already taught at the
University, and that the "only
thing needed to make such a course of study thorough and com-
plete" was the aid of a
"practical pharmacist to give a course of lectures on the subject."
The
$200 appropriation was used to
"procure the necessary drugs, etc., for manipulation and
study." Kauffman's services were
procured for $400. See Alexis Cope, "Report of Trustees,"
in ibid., 12; and H[enry] J. Booth, in Record
of Proceedings of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio
Agricultural and Mechanical College
and the Ohio State University, Columbus, May 11, 1870,
to June 25, 1890 (Columbus, n.d.), 314.
77. The ten students were Herman George
Beck, Albert Gallatin Byers, Beatrice Earhart,
and Charles Henry Krieger of Columbus,
Arthur Theodore Heath and George Frederick
Weidner of Cuyahoga Falls, Edwin Percy
Bonner of London, Jonah Clifford Cadwallader of
Morrow, Charles Campbell Cherryholmes of
Millersburg, and Henry Titus West of Sylvania.
See "University Calendar," Catalogue
of the Ohio State University For the Year 1883-4
(Columbus, 1884), 7; "Students in
Pharmacy," Catalogue of the Ohio State University for the
Year 1885, in Fifteenth Annual Report
of the Board of Trustees . . . For the Year 1885, 128; and
William H. Scott, "The Annual
Report of the President," in Sixteenth Annual Report of the
Board of Trustees of the Ohio State
University, to the Governor of the State of Ohio, For the
Year 1886 (Columbus, 1887), 22.
Pharmaceutical Education 67 |
|
complete course," noting that students had come to regard degrees "as the recognition proper for systematic study in special fields."78 The 1885 Catalogue of the University drew prospective students' attention to the provi- sions of the new Ohio pharmacy practice act and pointed with pride to the new "short course in pharmacy," which was to be supplemented by "actual service in a retail drug store." The studies selected were "those indicated by the state board of pharmacy," but as yet the course was to be regarded "as pro- visional only," and would be supplanted by a full course which would require at least three years of study.
The instruction in pharmacy proper has been placed in the hands of Mr. George B. Kauffman, well known as the senior member of the firm of Kauffman, Lattimer & Co., who brings to the work not only the knowledge and zeal required, but also
78. William H. Scott, "Annual Report of the President, 1884-5," in Fifteenth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees . . . For the Year 1885, 19-20; and Sidney A. Norton, "Department Reports: Chemistry," in ibid., 31. |
68 OHIO
HISTORY
the extensive facilities of his private
laboratory. The other studies of the class in
pharmacy will, it is hoped, find their
proper places in connection with the regular
classes of the university.
At present no degree is offered, since
it is thought that sufficient inducement for
hard study is presented by the
certificate given by the Ohio board of pharmacy for
evidence of qualification shown by a
satisfactory examination. The degree of
bachelor of pharmacy will probably be
given upon completion of the full
course.79
While considered provisional, the new
course in pharmacy was solidly
packed with basic science courses and
was intended to fill two thirty-seven-
week years, putting it on a par with
offerings at the University of Michigan,
which served as a benchmark of academic
rigor for other American schools
and colleges of pharmacy, both public
and private.80 During their first year,
students were expected to take
twenty-five hours of chemistry and chemistry
laboratory work, six hours each of
physiology and pharmacy, five hours each
of botany and physics, and three hours
of blow-piping. During their second
year, students were to take an
additional fifteen hours of chemical laboratory,
fifteen hours of botany, fifteen hours
of pharmacy, ten hours of materia med-
ica, and five hours of principles of
medicine. An optional thesis could be
substituted for five hours of materia
medica.81 The rigor and high academic
standards would take their toll,
however: only three of the original ten stu-
dents completed the provisional two-year
pharmacy course at Ohio State.82
The following year, Ohio State
University became the first institution in the
nation to require three full years of
graded study as a condition to awarding the
"Graduate of Pharmacy" degree.83
79. "The School of Pharmacy," Catalogue
of the Ohio State University for the Year 1885, in
ibid., 152.
80. "Terms and Vacations," Catalogue
of the Ohio State University for the Year 1885, in
ibid., 62. In 1885, the University of
Michigan required its pharmacy students to spend "seven
or eight hours a day in college, with
some hours daily in private study," constituting "a pro-
gressive course for two collegiate years
of nine months." In contrast, the University of
Wisconsin required two years of 27 weeks
each, Purdue University required two years of 20
weeks each, and the State University of
Iowa required only 22 weeks of ungraded subjects
spread over two terms, plus laboratory
work. The New York College of Pharmacy, one of the
stronger independent schools, required
its students to attend four or five lectures a week during
a five-and-one-half-month term, and 15
laboratory sessions during each of two terms. See
"Announcement for 1885-6," Annual
Announcement of the School of Pharmacy of the
University of Michigan for the
Eighteenth Year, 1885-6 (Ann Arbor,
1885), 5, Kremers
Reference Files; and Sonnedecker,
"American Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900," 392.
81. "Provisional Course in
Pharmacy," Catalogue of the Ohio State University for the Year
1885, in Fifteenth Annual Report of
the Board of Trustees... For the Year 1885, 138.
82. Alexis Cope, "Report of
Trustees," in Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of
Trustees of the Ohio State
University, to the Governor of the State of Ohio, For the Year 1887
(Columbus, 1888), 17. The three
graduates were Arthur Theodore Heath and George Frederic
Weidner of Cuyahoga Falls, and Charles
Henry Krieger of Columbus, who received their
Ph.G. degrees on June 22, 1887.
83. The Philadelphia College of Pharmacy
reported a four-year, twenty-week term "full
Pharmaceutical Education
69
Pharmaceutical Education in Ohio
After 1885
Ohio State's entry into the arena of
pharmaceutical instruction by no means
inhibited the development of other
schools of pharmacy within the state dur-
ing the next two decades; indeed, such
growth may be seen as part of a na-
tional trend of proliferation in
pharmaceutical education which in Ohio re-
sulted in the establishment of four new
schools and colleges of pharmacy and
a Columbus-based correspondence school.84
National Normal University. Like the Department of Pharmacy in Ada, the
National Normal University School of
Pharmacy at Lebanon had its roots in
the independent normal school movement
of the mid-1850s; indeed, the
movement found its most congenial home
in Lebanon and its most impas-
sioned advocate in Alfred Holbrook, son
of Josiah Holbrook, founder of the
American Lyceum movement.85 Holbrook
had been called to head the new
Southwestern State Normal School in
Lebanon in 1855; the following year,
the School passed into the control of
Holbrook, who operated it on a propri-
etary basis.86
The new school attracted controversy
from the very first: pupils were ad-
mitted without examination and were
placed where they could do the best
course" to the U.S. Commissioner of
Education in 1884, but it may be assumed that the College
was merely emphasizing its assumption
that apprenticeship was an integral part of its four
years of pharmaceutical education.
Likewise, the Louisville School of Pharmacy for Women
made the remarkable claim of a
three-year course, with thirty-six weeks in each school year,
but Sonnedecker notes that "this
and other grandiose claims by the school have an air of doubt-
ful probability." See "Table
XIII.-Statistics of schools of medicine, of dentistry, and of
pharmacy for 1884-'85, &c.," in
Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1884-
'85 (Washington, D.C., 1886), 666; and Glenn Sonnedecker
and Charles L. Williams, "Ohio
State University's Contribution to
Pharmaceutical Education," unpublished paper presented to
the Section on Education and
Legislation, American Pharmaceutical Association, Chicago,
April 25, 1961, 8.
84. In 1952, Sonnedecker reported a
fifth institution, the "Ohio School of Pharmacy,
Columbia, Ohio," which offered a
nine-month course under the direction of "Jas. H. Canfield,
President." In 1961, he speculated
that the School "must have been transitory, if indeed it ever
became a useful venture." Further
research reveals that the "School" was merely a garbled
reference to the Ohio State University
College of Pharmacy. See Sonnedecker, "American
Pharmaceutical Education Before 1900,"
103; Sonnedecker and Williams, op. cit., 4-5;
"Where Students of the United
States Can Obtain Pharmaceutical Instruction," Meyer Brothers
Druggist, 17 (April, 1896), 192; cf. "Where Students of the
United States Can Obtain
Pharmaceutical Instruction," Meyer
Brothers Druggist, 17 (May, 1896), 226.
85. Holbrook often drew his readers'
attention to the mathematical connotation of the term
"normal" as the shortest
distance from a point to a line or plane, reflecting his passion for pur-
suing his education objectives by the
most direct methods.
86. W[illiam] O[xley] Thompson,
"The National Normal University, Lebanon, Warren
County, Founded 1855," in Burns,
op. cit., 339; and Karl J. Kay, History of the National Normal
University of Lebanon, Ohio (Washington Court House, 1929), 5-7. Henry S. Lehr,
president
and founder of the normal school at Ada,
had been a pupil of Holbrook's and conducted his
new school "very largely upon the
same general plans." Ibid., 25.
70 OHIO
HISTORY
work; there were no final examinations;
there were no vacations, save two or
three weeks each summer. By 1865, an
entire four-year college course was ar-
ranged to occupy two fifty-week years of
twelve- to fifteen-hour days filled
with written exercises, recitations,
drills, and independent study, entirely re-
placing the tried-and-true lecture
system then in common use. Yet a full
year's expenses, including tuition, room
and board, would not exceed $150.87
The foreshortened, economical program
was an immediate success: by 1870,
students were enrolled from so wide a
territory that they petitioned to have the
School renamed the "National Normal
School"; by 1875, enrollment reached
1,567, more than twice the figure
reported a decade earlier. In 1881, full uni-
versity powers were granted by the
state, and the School was renamed the
"National Normal University."88
The School of Pharmacy was established
in 1886 as part of a general ex-
pansion of the University, as at Ohio
Northern and Ohio State, evidently in
direct response to the Ohio pharmacy
practice act of 1884.89 The unspecific
coursework of the new School was in the
hands of Francis H. Frost, M.D.,
who taught chemistry and served as Dean,
and J. T. Moore, M.A., who
taught botany; the course itself was
distributed over a three-year period to co-
incide with the three-year practical
experience requirement of the State Board
of Pharmacy. What made the new School
unique, however, was its emphasis
on "literary education" and an
unusual work-study arrangement. The School
offered "a position in a drug store
for three years" and the privilege of com-
pleting the two-year "Scientific
Course" leading to the B.S. degree on a con-
comitant basis; the School itself
conferred the degree of "Pharmacist and
Druggist."90 Both the
School and the University flourished for a decade.
87. M. F. Andrew, "Alfred
Holbrook," in Burns, op. cit., 504. Classes were held Tuesday
through Saturday. This arrangement
"protected Sunday from the study and preparation of
lessons [and] also offered the ladies a
better opportunity for individual laundry work."
88. Kay, op. cit., 15, 17, and 29. At
the time, college-bound students spent three or four
years in a preparatory school in an
academy before embarking upon their college careers,
which consumed an additional three or
four years. Holbrook's University condensed the
preparatory work to forty-eight weeks as
an end in itself or as a prerequisite to the Scientific
Course, which required another
forty-eight weeks and culminated in the Bachelor of Science
degree. Interestingly, the B.S. degree
was a prerequisite for the Classic Course, which re-
quired another forty-eight weeks of
intense study and rewarded successful candidates with the
Bachelor of Arts degree, since Holbrook
"regarded a knowledge of mathematics and the sci-
ences as a prerequisite to a knowledge
of the classics." Graduates of the Classic Course could
enter the senior year at Yale University
without examination and other institutions, such as the
University of Kentucky, the University
of Michigan, and Ohio State University on "favorable
terms." Ibid., 26-27 and 35-36.
89. Ibid., 17. The other new departments
added were law, medicine, photography, and
shorthand typing. The faculty, or
"Board of Instruction," had increased from seven members
in 1859 to thirty-five, and Holbrook had
assumed the title of "President of the University."
90. "School of Pharmacy," Thirty-Second
Annual Catalogue of the Teachers and Students of
the National Normal University (Lebanon, 1888), 82, College Archives, S. Arthur Watson
Library, Wilmington College, Wilmington,
Ohio [hereinafter referred to as "Wilmington
College Archives"]. Pupils were
given credit for prior experience in a drug store, which was
Pharmaceutical Education
71
In 1893, Holbrook's naive management
practices forced him to form a capi-
tal stock company in order to allow the
overextended University to pay its
debts.91 Under its new
organizational structure, the University's prospects
appeared to brighten, and the renamed
College of Pharmacy continued to
prosper under the direction of Frost,
who succeeded Heber Holbrook as dean in
1896. Frost's new curriculum extended over
two years of twenty-five weeks
of study, covering a more orthodox
program of systematic and physiological
botany, inorganic and organic chemistry,
medicinal chemistry, toxicology and
urinalysis, microscopy and histology,
bacteriology, materia medica, physiol-
ogy, and practical pharmacy, including
laboratory work. Students completing
the course in a "satisfactory
manner" received the Ph.G. degree. Tuition for
the entire course was held to $75.92
Yet by 1904, competitive pressure forced
Frost to condense his curriculum
to a non-degree program consisting of
three terms of sixteen weeks over the
course of one year. This short course
was "designed to help those who want
to prepare for the state board in the
least possible time," and was aimed at
those "who have had some experience
in the practice of Pharmacy," such as
microscopy and volumetric analysis, and
included "a review of the
Pharmacopeia to aid students in passing
the state board." The Ph.G. degree
was awarded to graduates of a new
two-year program. Tuition was reduced to
$60 per year.93
Despite high academic standards, loyal
alumni, and a gradually increasing
enrollment, the debt-ridden University
entered into a period of rapid decline.
When a last-ditch attempt by alumni to
endow their alma mater failed in
1917, the University closed its doors
forever, following a hastily arranged
merger with nearby Wilmington College, a
conservative Quaker institution.94
The College of Pharmacy continued to
thrive during the period of decline,
however, under a new organizational
structure and at a different location. The
applied against the three-year
requirement. Students were also encouraged to apply for a $100
scholarship, which covered tuition in
both courses for three years.
91. Thompson, loc. cit.; and Kay, op.
cit., 19 and 21. The University went into receivership
in 1895. Kay notes that Holbrook not
only lacked "financial shrewdness," but adopted an ex-
travagant life style "suitable for
the active head of a large educational institution." Following
the receivership, the Holbrook family
scattered, but Holbrook clung stubbornly to his presi-
dency, which he relinquished in 1897.
92. "College of Pharmacy," The
National Normal University Catalogue, 1897-98 (Lebanon,
1897), 54, Wilmington College Archives.
93. "College of Pharmacy," National
Normal University Bulletin, First Series, 1 (August,
1904), 34 and 37, Wilmington College
Archives. Advantages cited for the program included
the opportunity to study a business
course or any other subject concurrently and the assurance
that the two-year course would be
accepted for one year's work in medical colleges. Frost
was assisted by William Merton Jackson,
Ph.B., Ph.C., as "Instructor of Pharmacy." See
"Faculty," in ibid., 4.
94. See Kay, op. cit., 28-31. Wilmington
College preserved the former University's records,
evaluated its students' credits for
transfer to other institutions, and hired three of its remaining
faculty.
72 OHIO
HISTORY
"Queen City College of
Pharmacy" of Cincinnati had become a part of the
University in 1914. The scanty records
remaining show an enrollment of 147
students in 1915, and a graduating class
of 54 in 1917.95 Described as "one
of the most thorough and successful
schools of Pharmacy in the country," the
Queen City College conferred the 'usual
degrees" under the direction of Frank
B. Cane, M.D., Ph.M. Cane was succeeded
as dean by pharmaceutical jour-
nalist Caswell A. Mayo, who orchestrated
an amalgamation of the College
with the Cincinnati College of Pharmacy
in 1920.96
Scio College of Pharmacy. The thread of continuity that runs through
Ohio's schools and colleges of pharmacy
is nowhere more apparent than in
the case of the Scio College of
Pharmacy. Like its predecessor at Lebanon,
its parent institution was given to
radical educational reforms; like its sister
colleges at Berea and Ada, it was
affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal
Church.
This small liberal arts school began as
the Rural Seminary at Harlem
Springs in 1857. In 1867, it removed to
New Market and incorporated as the
New Market College, under the limited
patronage of the Church. In 1872,
the College radically changed its
methods and reorganized as "The One Study
University." The novel "one
study" plan of instruction attracted wide atten-
tion, but did not thrive: in 1877, the
plan was abandoned, and the College
once more was reorganized as Scio
College, under the full control of the
Church.97
Instruction in pharmacy began in 1888,
under the tutelage of pharmacist-
lawyer James Hartley Beal; a formal
Department of Pharmacy was organized
the following year. By 1890, two
separate courses of instruction were pro-
vided: a one-year,
ten-and-one-half-month course leading to the Ph.G. degree
"for the convenience of those who
desire to qualify themselves for clerkships,
95. "Cincinnati Colleges
Amalgamated," The Pharmaceutical Era, 53 (November, 1920),
343. The College had been founded by
Cane in 1912. Also see "List of Students," Bulletin of
Lebanon University, 7 (August, 1915), 32; and "Graduating Class of the Pharmacy
Department," Bulletin of Lebanon
University, 8 (August, 1916), 45-47, Wilmington College
Archives. In addition to Ohio, the
College served students from Kentucky, Michigan, North
Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, West
Virginia, and Wisconsin.
96. "The College of Pharmacy,"
in ibid., 42. The Bulletin description noted that the Queen
City College was "equipped with
every modern convenience" and called prospective students'
attention to Cincinnati's famous Lloyd Library, which
offered "facilities for research that can-
not be surpassed," adding grandly "the
American Pharmaceutical Association holds its meet-
ings in this Library, and all the
students of the College are given the opportunity of attendance
and participation." Also see
"Cincinnati Colleges Amalgamated," loc. cit.
97. W[illiam] O[xley] Thompson,
"Scio College, Scio, Harrison County, Founded 1857," in
Bums, op. cit., 351. The "one
study" plan "had some advantages not as readily recognized in
the days before electives," Thompson points out.
The college spirit, as well as college tradi-
tions "could not thrive,"
however, and the plan "did not satisfy." Also see Letter, George D.
Beal to Edward C. Elliott, September 25,
1947, 1, Kremers Reference Files. Beal notes that the
"one study" plan was
resurrected by Ohio's Hiram College in the 1930s.
Pharmaceutical Education
73
and for the State Examination in
Pharmacy, but are limited as to time and ex-
penditure," and a two-year course
leading to the Ph.G. degree, "designed to
thoroughly prepare the capable student
to begin the practice of scientific or
manufacturing pharmacy." The work
thus demanded the full attention of the
students, who were engaged in laboratory
for two to six hours daily. The un-
usually rigorous curriculum was designed
to be "both compact and compre-
hensive," and prospective students
were advised that "not part of the work, ei-
ther in text-book or in the
laboratories, may be omitted or slighted." The
Department also required students to
pass the Ohio State Board of Pharmacy
examination as a prerequisite to their
receiving the Ph.G. degree. The entire
cost of a year's instruction, including
room and board, would not, according
to the announcement, exceed $200.98
The Department's seven-man faculty was
assisted by an advisory council of
pharmacists and physicians that
controlled the curriculum and revised it from
time to time to keep the Department
"in touch and accordant with the best in-
terests of the profession."
Prospective students were assured that none of the
instruction was laid down on
denominational lines; rather, the intent was to
"surround students with an
atmosphere of moral and Christian influences, but
devoid of sectarian bias."
Moreover, the Department took pains to stave off
the unsavory reputations of the
"cram schools" by discouraging the attendance
of "those who have no higher
ambition than to prepare themselves in the
shortest space of time to pass the
examinations of the State Board, without
any further thought as to qualification
or fitness."99
Nevertheless, competitive pressures
began to take their toll. In 1899, the
Department offered a "Special or
Review Course," intended for the benefit of
students who had "only a limited
time to bestow upon the study of phar-
98. "Synopsis of the Course of
Instruction," Annual Announcement of the Department of
Pharmacy of Scio College, 1891-1892 (Scio, 1891), 9-10; "Requirements for Admission
and
Graduation," 18; and "Fees and
Expenses," 19, Kremers Reference Files. The condensed
Ph.G. curriculum included inorganic
chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry,
botany, study of the Dispensatory and
examination of drugs, materia medica and pharmacog-
nosy, and anatomy and physiology. The
Ph.C. curriculum added advanced general and
theoretical chemistry, advanced
qualitative and quantitative analysis, chemical physics,
crystallography, analysis of potable
waters and toxicology, Latin, advanced microscopy and
pharmacognosy, preparation and
purification of medicinal chemicals, bacteriology, "practice
in preparing the more elaborate and
difficult preparations of the Pharmacopoeia," and a thesis.
The Scio curricula also avoided the
"curse of the city colleges," which typically taught classes
three days a week for two years to allow
students the opportunity to pursue part-time
employment in area drug stores. See
"Synopsis of the Course of Instruction," 10-16; and Beal
to Elliott, 1-2.
99. "Character of the School,"
Annual Announcement of the Department of Pharmacy of
Scio College, 1894-1895 (Scio, 1894), 7 and 11-12, Kremers Reference Files. The
Department
also discouraged students from
abandoning other callings to embrace the profession of phar-
macy, believing such a course to be
"opposed to the best interest of the profession." At the
time, obligatory laboratory work totaled
836 hours in the Ph.G. course and 1,656 hours in the
Ph.C. course. Ibid., 10-11.
74 OHIO
HISTORY
macy." Regular students, however,
were still prohibited from seeking outside
employment.100 By 1902, the
Department had acquired collegiate status and
had graduated 202 students in the two
programs. The following year, the new
College held out the prospect of a
"full college course" to the graduates of
these programs, conferring the degree of
Bachelor of Science or that of
Analytical Chemist.101 In
1906, the College abandoned its Ph.G. program
and added a three-year Doctor of
Pharmacy curriculum.102 Despite these pro-
gressive actions, the lure of the
big-city schools and colleges of pharmacy
proved to be irresistible to more and
more students. In 1908, the Scio
College of Pharmacy merged with the
Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy, clos-
ing two decades of service to Ohio
pharmacy.103
Ohio Medical University. The most determined bid for the attention and
custom of potential pharmacy students in
the central Ohio area came from the
Department of Pharmacy of the Ohio
Medical University, founded in
Columbus in 1892. A determined rival of
the Starling Medical College,
which had served Columbus since 1848,104
the new University boasted a
100. "Length of Courses," Annual
Announcement of the Department of Pharmacy, Scio
College, 1899-1900 (Scio, 1899), 6; and "General Information," Annual
Announcement of the
Department of Pharmacy of Scio
College, 1900-1901 (Scio, 1900), 21,
Kremers Reference
Files. Also see "Employment for
Students," ibid. No entrance examination was required for
the review course, students being
allowed to enter the course at any time and pursue any stud-
ies for which they were qualified.
101. See "Courses of Instruction
and Degrees," Annual Catalogue and Announcement of the
Scio College of Pharmacy, Department
of Scio College, 1902-1903 (Scio,
1902), 6; and
"Additional Degrees," Annual
Announcement and Catalogue of the Scio College of Pharmacy
and Chemistry, Department of Scio
College, 1903-1904 (Scio, 1903), 6;
and "Alumni Register,"
22-32, Kremers Reference Files.
102. "Courses of Instruction and
Degrees," Scio College of Pharmacy and Chemistry . . .
Prospectus, Eighteenth Annual
Session, 1906-1907 (Scio, 1906), 7,
Kremers Reference Files.
The College required a high school
education or its equivalent for admission to the Pharm.D.
program, which included three terms of
Latin or Greek, three terms of German or French,
three terms of systematic and economic
geology, three terms of physiology and pathological
chemistry, three terms of synthesis and
testing of organic compounds, mineralogy, advanced
toxicological analysis, advanced organic
analysis, technological chemistry, advanced chemical
philosophy, and a thesis. See
"Requirements for Admission." 5; and "Leading to Degree of
Doctor of Pharmacy," 24-25 in ibid.
The Pharm.D. curriculum produced only three graduates.
See Beal to Elliott, 2.
103. Beal to Elliott, 2-3. Because
students in pharmacy "would not go to a small town," the
College experienced "an uphill
struggle" until the merger. Beal served on the Pittsburgh fac-
ulty until 1912, when he resigned to
become secretary of the American Pharmaceutical
Association.
104. Both institutions trace their
lineage to the Medical Department of Willoughby University
of Lake Erie, chartered by the Ohio
General Assembly on March 3, 1834. Located in the
northeastern corner of Cuyahoga County,
the new Department seemed to fill a void between
Fairfield Medical College in Western New
York, 400 miles to the east, and Cincinnati's
Medical College in Ohio; there were no
medical schools in any state west of Ohio at the time.
The Department soon acquired a good
reputation, but in 1843, internal dissension and public
clamor over the methods used in securing
dissecting material led four of the five faculty to re-
sign and form the Cleveland Medical
College, the medical department of Western Reserve
Pharmaceutical Education 75
school of medicine, a school of
dentistry, a school of pharmacy, and held out
prospects for a school of midwifery and
a training school for nurses.
Moreover, the new University adopted the
recitation plan of instruction and
gave laboratory work and clinical
medicine a prominent place in the course of
instruction. As chancellor, the trustees
hired Dr. James F. Baldwin, a bril-
liant surgeon.105 For
dean of his new Department of Pharmacy, Baldwin
hired the redoubtable James H. Beal, who
was concurrently serving as dean of
the Scio College of Pharmacy.106
Beal's curriculum covered two six-month
terms spread over two years and
closely paralleled the offerings of his
Scio school; his seven-man faculty
College. By 1847, it became clear that
the region could not support two medical schools, and
the General Assembly authorized the
trustees of the University to move its Medical
Department to Columbus and caused it to
be renamed the "Willoughby Medical College at
Columbus." The new school received
the hearty support of many civic-minded citizens, in-
cluding city founder Lyne Starling, who
made a gift of $35,000 to the College on the condition
that it would establish and sustain a
hospital for the sick poor; shortly thereafter, the trustees
and faculty voted to change the name of
the institution to "Starling Medical College" out of
gratitude to the donor. The cost of
constructing the elaborate Norman Gothic building decided
upon had been grossly underestimated,
however, and the faculty labored without pay for over
two decades to retire the $40,000 debt.
In 1865, the College leased its hospital facilities to the
Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis,
which was renamed "St. Francis Hospital." Despite this bur-
den, the reputation of the faculty grew
and the College prospered. In 1874, however, dis-
agreement over a vacancy in the Chair of
Materia Medica led to the resignation of four promi-
nent physicians, who organized a rival
school, the Columbus Medical College in 1875. The
new College had a strong faculty and
soon attracted donations for its own building and its own
hospital, the Hawkes Hospital of Mt.
Carmel. In 1891, following the death of the chief protag-
onist, Dr. John W. Hamilton,
negotiations for a reconciliation began; in 1892, the Columbus
Medical College suspended operations as
a separate teaching body and merged back into the
Starling Medical College. Some of the
Columbus Medical College faculty had grander plans,
however. That same year, under the
guidance of Dr. James F. Baldwin, they organized a new
and competing institution, the Ohio
Medical University. See Jonathan Forman, "Early
American Medical Schools: The College of
Medicine of the Ohio State University," Surgery,
Gynecology and Obstetrics, 61 (July, 1935), 124-27; Linden F. Edwards,
"Centenary
Anniversary of the Oldest Medical
College Hospital in the United States-St. Francis Hospital,
Columbus, Ohio," Bulletin of the
History of Medicine, 26 (May-June, 1952), 269-74; Frederick
C. Waite, "An Historical Sketch of
the Willoughby Medical College (1834-1847)," in The Ohio
State University College of Medicine:
A Collection of Source Material Covering a Century of
Medical Progress, 1834-1934 (Blanchester, 1934), 36-41; Starling Loving,
"History of Starling
Medical College," in ibid., 146-54;
and "Dr. [David Tod] Gilliam's Statement Concerning the
Founding of Columbus Medical
College," in ibid., 211.
105. "Articles of Incorporation of
the Ohio Medical University," in ibid., 237; and Forman,
op. cit., 127. The two-year midwifery
department was established in 1896. See "Department
of Midwifery: Announcement," Fifth
Annual Announcement of the Ohio Medical University
Departments of Medicine, Dentistry,
and Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio, Calendar for 1896-1897
(Columbus, 1896), 71-73, Nathaniel R.
Colman Medical Library, College of Medicine, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
[hereinafter referred to as "Coleman Library"].
106. In his efforts to keep the Scio
College of Pharmacy solvent, Beal had adopted a peri-
patetic life style. In 1896, for
example, he helped found the Pittsburgh Dental College, com-
muting on weekends to teach chemistry
and dental metallurgy. In 1900, he began lecturing at
the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy,
being elected chairman of its faculty the following year.
See Beal to Elliott, 2; and "Ohio
News Notes," American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record,
38 (June 10, 1901), 346.
76 OHIO
HISTORY
taught inorganic chemistry, analytical
chemistry, organic chemistry, physio-
logical chemistry, theory and practice
of pharmacy, botany, study of the
Dispensatory, examination of drugs, materia medica, and
pharmacognosy.
An unique feature of the Department was
the opportunity for advance students
to obtain actual practice in
prescription work in the dispensaries operated by
the University. Successful candidates
were awarded the Ph.G. degree. Fees
did not exceed $60 per year. Declaring
that "the province of the professor is
properly directive or explanatory,"
the initial Announcement explained that
students would study the "settled
principles of the Theory and Art of
Pharmacy" in the standard textbooks
of the day, the progress of the students
being "regularly tested by daily or
weekly examinations or recitations" con-
ducted by the professor in charge.107
A "good common school education"
was the only requirement for admission,
although three years' practical expe-
rience with a person "qualified to
conduct the retail drug business" was re-
quired for graduation. In 1893, the
University constructed a large, four-story
building on Park Street opposite Goodale
Park and entered into agreements
with Protestant Hospital and the
hospital of the Ohio Penitentiary for the ex-
clusive use of their clinical material.108
Despite these advantages, the
Department of Pharmacy appeared to be
struggling: John Rauschkolb,
Ph.D., succeeded Beal as dean in 1893,
only to be succeeded himself the fol-
lowing year by Nathan L. Burner, F.C.S.;
the rate of faculty turnover was
alarmingly high, and while enrollment
averaged sixteen students over the first
two years, only two graduated. "We
have entirely ABANDONED FINAL
EXAMINATIONS," the 1893
Announcement exclaimed shrilly,explaining that
students would be graded upon their
daily oral recitations and a written recita-
tion at the close of each term.109
107. "Department of Pharmacy:
Course of Instruction," Announcement of the Ohio Medical
University, Columbus, Ohio, Session
of 1892-'93, Departments of Medicine, Dentistry and
Pharmacy (Columbus, 1892), 26-32; and "Department of
Pharmacy: Objects and Methodist,"
in ibid., 25, Coleman Library. The
Department's initial faculty consisted of Beal, who taught
chemistry and theory and practice of
pharmacy, W. W. Meggenhofen, who taught theory and
practice of pharmacy, John Rauschkolb,
who taught botany, Matthias Eis, who taught practical
chemistry, Clovis M. Taylor, M.D., who
taught physiology, Claude C. Bolon, M.D., who taught
microscopy, and Gilbert H. Bargar,
LL.B., who taught pharmaceutical jurisprudence. See
"Department of Pharmacy:
Faculty," in ibid., 24.
108. "Our Building" and
"Clinical Facilities," Second Annual Announcement of the Ohio
Medical University Departments of
Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio,
Calendar, 1893-1894 (Columbus, 1893), 9, Coleman Library; and Forman, loc.
cit. By 1898,
three additional four-story facilities
had been constructed. Also see "Requirements for
Admission" and "Requirements
for Graduation," Announcement of the Department of
Pharmacy of the Ohio Medical
University, Departments of Pharmacy, Medicine, and Dentistry,
Columbus, Ohio, Calendar, 1893-1894 (Columbus, 1893), 7, Coleman Library.
109. "Announcement" in ibid.,
3. The new plan would "surpass the old system," the
Announcement claimed, "as it
maintains a constant stimulus to thorough work." Also see
"Faculty" and
"Matriculates, 1892-'93" in ibid., 2 and 8; and "Faculty,"
"Matriculates, 1893-
'94," and "Graduates," Third
Annual Announcement of the Department of Pharmacy of the
Pharmaceutical Education 77 |
|
After 1895, however, the Department appeared to stabilize: A thesis was added to the requirements for graduation, and while plans for "advanced work" leading to the Ph.C. degree never materialized, the laboratory requirements for the Ph.G. degree were fixed at 900 hours; in 1896, the Department added a special non-degree "Course in Pharmaceutical Chemistry," and although ma- triculation soared, particularly among the "Special Students in Pharmacy," the number of graduates never exceeded eight until after the turn of the century.110
Ohio Medical University, Departments of Pharmacy, Medicine and Dentistry, Columbus, 0., Calendar for 1894-1895 (Columbus, 1894), 2 and 13, Coleman Library. 110. "Professional Degree" in ibid., 12; "General Information" and "Requirements for Graduation," Fourth Annual Announcement of the Department of Pharmacy of the Ohio Medical University, Department of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio, Calendar for 1895-1896 (Columbus, 1895), 11; and "Department of Pharmacy: A Course in Pharmaceutical Chemistry," Fifth Annual Announcement of the Ohio Medical University . . . Calendar for 1896-1897, 69-70, Coleman Library. The course was designed to "broaden the field" of the student's analytical and synthetic work and "bring him in touch with the problems of production and analysis." See "Department of Pharmacy: Matriculates, 1895-96" in ibid., 67-68. The Department listed twelve juniors, seven seniors, and ninety-eight special students. |
78 OHIO
HISTORY
By 1898, however, enrollment had
declined precipitously; the practical experi-
ence requirement for graduating from the
Department of Pharmacy was reduced
to two years. The following year, this
requirement and the thesis were elimi-
nated entirely, with but indifferent
results.111
During these same years, however, an
imbroglio over a proposed merger
with the Ohio State University erupted,
which resulted in the expulsion of
Baldwin as chancellor and professor and
the resignation of six prominent fac-
ulty members. The affair also led to the
resignation of Ohio State University
President James H. Canfield and created
a cloud of vituperation which would
delay any talk of such a merger for the
next sixteen years.l12 The Ohio
Medical University could have survived
the unsavory publicity surrounding
the ill-fated merger proposal or it
could have sustained the loss of its most
prominent faculty members, but not both.
These factors, coupled with the
ever-increasing indebtedness, made
institutional collapse almost inevitable.
Still, the University struggled on. As
chancellor, the trustees chose Dr.
David N. Kinsman, a respected internist;
as new dean of the beleaguered
Also see "Graduates of Ohio Medical
University," Starling-Ohio Medical College,
Departments of Medicine, Dentistry
and Pharmacy, January Bulletin, 1912-13, 6 (January,
1913), 64-90, Special Collections, Main
Library, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
[hereinafter referred to as
"Special Collections"].
111.
"Department of Pharmacy:
Requirements for Graduation," Seventh Annual
Announcement of the Ohio Medical
University Departments of Medicine, Dentistry and
Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio, Calendar
for 1898-1899 (Columbus, 1898), 69;
and "Department
of Pharmacy: Requirements for
Graduation," Eighth Annual Announcement of the Ohio
Medical University Departments of
Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio,
Calendar for 1899-1900 (Columbus, 1899), 58-59, Coleman Library. In lieu of
these require-
ments, candidates for graduation were to
secure "competent standing in all branches of the
curriculum," determined by daily
grading and term examinations, and present a "certificate of
good moral character." The number
of graduates continued to average about six per year,
however. See "Graduates of Ohio
Medical University," loc. cit.
112. In 1897, Canfield had called
together a conference of representatives from both the
Starling Medical College and the Ohio
Medical University to consider the desirability and fea-
sibility of a union of the schools to
form a new medical department at Ohio State University.
Although the proposed merger would have
relieved the Ohio Medical University of its consid-
erable indebtedness, seven of the
University's twenty trustees, reacting to unfavorable agita-
tion among their students, forced
through a resolution putting an end to all efforts at consolida-
tion. Canfield's second attempt,
directed to about twenty individual faculty members at each
school, received an even swifter rebuff,
and gained him the enmity of those who presumably
would not be asked to join the proposed
new department. Charges and countercharges pep-
pered both the professional and the lay
press across the state, which in turn, alarmed the fac-
ulty and the trustees of the State
University, who were understandably reluctant to absorb what
had been increasingly represented as a
substandard medical school, particularly one which
carried with it not only a large
indebtedness, but also a proposed operating budget nearly equal
to the operating expenses of the entire
University. Canfield resigned May 9, 1899; on June 30,
his successor, William Oxley Thompson,
convinced the trustees that the plan was impractical
and must be abandoned. See Charges,
Evidence and Arguments on which Dr. J. F. Baldwin
was Expelled as Chancellor and
Professor of Operative Gynecology by the Trustees of the Ohio
Medical University (Columbus,
1899), 128; [James F. Baldwin,] The Ohio Medical University
Imbroglio: Personal Malice, Jealousy,
and Ambition, vs. the Demands for Higher Standards
(Cincinnati, 1899), 4-31, both in
Special Collections; and Cope, op. cit., 267-76.
Pharmaceutical Education 79
Department of Pharmacy, Kinsman chose
George H. Matson, Jr., Ph.G.113
By 1907, however, the University could
no longer continue as an independent
entity. On March 13, representatives of
the University agreed to merge with
the Starling Medical College to form a
new entity, the Starling-Ohio Medical
College. Ohio State University President
William Oxley Thompson was
elected president of the board of trustees
of the new College; Professor of
Horticulture William R. Lazenby was
elected secretary. Clearly, the
University had a stake in the new
venture. 114
After some delay, the trustees chose
Harry R. Burbacher, Ph.G., as dean of
the Department of Pharmacy of the new
College. A 1905 alumnus of the
Department, Burbacher continued to offer
the truncated curriculum that had
evolved. Despite the considerable
talents of faculty such as Ohio State's
William McPherson, who had also taught
chemistry in the Department since
1903, the number of students registered
in the Department remained disap-
pointingly low.115 Unendowed
and entirely dependent upon tuition, which
had increased to $85 per year, the new
College faced an uncertain financial fu-
ture. In 1909, Dr. William J. Means
replaced Dr. George M. Waters as dean
of the Department of Medicine and
immediately began encouraging
113. "Department of Pharmacy:
Faculty," Ninth Annual Announcement of the Ohio Medical
University Departments of Medicine,
Dentistry and Pharmacy, Columbus, Ohio, Calendar for
1900-1901 (Columbus, 1900), 59, Coleman Library; and "Ohio
Medical University: Officers
and Faculty," in The Ohio State
University College of Medicine, 242 and 248. An 1892 gradu-
ate of the Ohio State University College
of Pharmacy, Matson secured a M.D. degree from
Ohio Medical University in 1905 and
later became Secretary of the Ohio State Board of
Medical Registration. See
"Graduates of Ohio Medical University," 79; and "College of
Pharmacy," Ohio State University
Bulletin Alumni Register, 11 (November, 1906), 103, Special
Collections.
114. "Articles of Agreement for
Merger of Starling Medical College with the Ohio Medical
University into the Starling-Ohio
Medical College," in The Ohio State University College of
Medicine, 273-85. The Ohio Medical University deeded all of its
property to the new College
which in turn assumed over $30,000 in
notes and unpaid bills. Ibid., 283-84. "By combining
the teaching forces and clinical
facilities of the two schools a stronger institution has been
made than either could hope to become as
an independent organization," the initial Bulletin
declared. "Columbus has long been
known as a medical center of no mean rating, and it is
proposed by the united efforts of her
best medical men to not only maintain such reputation but
make her name even greater.... no city
in the Middle West has men more experience or
better known for their capabilities as
teachers of medicine." "Starling Ohio Medical College:
Mergement," Starling Ohio
Medical College Bulletin, Information Concerning Departments of
Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy, 1 (1907-1908), 5, Special Collections.
115. "Starling Ohio Medical
College: Department Officers," ibid., 6. The two-year, sixty-
eight-week curriculum included 340 hours
of instruction in the theory and practice of phar-
macy, 170 hours of instruction in
chemistry, 68 hours of instruction in physiology, in botany, in
materia medica, and in toxicology, and
24 hours of instruction in microscopy in addition to over
900 hours of laboratory
instruction. See "Department of
Pharmacy: Curriculum,"
"Department of Pharmacy:
Fees," and "Department of Pharmacy: Matriculates 1906-1907,"
in ibid., 42, 44, and 41. Up to this
time, the Department of Pharmacy had graduated only 84
students, barely seven percent of the
former University's 1,155 alumni. See "Summary of
Departments," Ohio Medical
University Bulletin. Information Concerning Colleges of
Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy, 2 (1906-1907), 52, Special Collections.
80 OHIO
HISTORY
Thompson to reconsider his earlier
opposition to a merger with Ohio State
University. By 1913, Means had
prevailed. On January 10, the trustees of
the College offered to transfer all
College property to the University if it
would establish a College of Medicine
and a College of Dentistry and accept
all Starling-Ohio students at the same
rank and standing. The Ohio General
Assembly quickly provided the enabling
legislation, and by January of the
following year, the University trustees
accepted the proposal and adopted reso-
lutions establishing the new Colleges,
ending at the same time the existence
of a rival Department of Pharmacy. 116
Ohio Institute of Pharmacy. The Ohio Institute of Pharmacy was a corre-
spondence course operated by Columbus
pharmacist Peter A. Mandabach be-
tween 1896 and 1914. "Stay at home
while you study Pharmacy," the jour-
nal advertisements advised. "We
give you the same instruction that you get
at college .... Hundreds testify to the
great value of our course .... Our
terms easy." Little beyond the now
faded advertisements remains to further
define the Institute, whose articles of
incorporation were canceled by the Ohio
Tax Department in 1914. Mandabach also
operated the "World's Electro-
Medical Institute" and the
Mandabach Drug Company, a legitimate wholesale
firm.117 Pharmacy historian
Glenn Sonnedecker concludes that the most that
can be said for such study endeavors is
that "they simplified and systematized
the self-education of perhaps thousands
of youths in pharmacy who never
would enter the doors of a school of
pharmacy." The enactment of so-called
"prerequisite laws" in New
York and Pennsylvania in 1905-06 and in other
states after 1915 required graduation
from a recognized school or college of
pharmacy as a prerequisite to taking the
state board of pharmacy licensure ex-
116. Forman, op. cit., 138;
"Proposal by the Board of Trustees of the Starling-Ohio Medical
College, a Corporation, to the Board of
Trustees of the Ohio State University, Authorized
January 10, 1913," in The Ohio
State University College of Medicine, 334; "An Act to
Authorize and Empower the Trustees of
the Ohio State University to Establish and Maintain in
Said University a College of Medicine
and a College of Dentistry," State of Ohio, Legislative
Acts Passed and Joint Resolutions
Adopted by the Eightieth General Assembly at its Regular
Session Which Began January 6, 1913, CIII (Springfield, 1913), 344. The bill was signed into
law by Governor James M. Cox on May 3.
Also see Osman Castle Hooper, History of the Ohio
State University, Vol. II, Continuation of the Narrative from 1910 to
1925, edited by Thomas C.
Mendenhall (Columbus, 1926), 104-05. The
Department of Pharmacy of Starling-Ohio
Medical College had graduated only 46
students over its short seven-year history. See
"Graduates of the Starling-Ohio
Medical College," Starling-Ohio Medical College ... Bulletin.
Departments of Medicine, Dentistry
and Pharmacy, 1912-1913, 6 (January,
1913), 26-36; and
"Sixth Annual Commencement of the
Starling-Ohio Medical College: Pharmacy Graduates,"
Starling-Ohio Medical College . . .
Bulletin. Departments of Medicine, Dentistry and
Pharmacy, 1913-1914, 7 (July, 1913), 118, Special Collections.
117. Columbus City Directory,
1901-1902, XXVI (Columbus, 1901), 634 and 715; Columbus
City Directory, 1912-1913, XXXVII (Columbus, 1912), 90 and 990; and "The Ohio
Institute of
Pharmacy Company," File 65461,
Articles of Incorporation, State of Ohio, Vol. 70, 205, Office
of the Ohio Secretary of State,
Columbus, Ohio.
Pharmaceutical Education
81
amination and would sound the death
knell for correspondence courses as a
substitute for residential academic
education in pharmacy. Ohio became the
sixth state to adopt such legislation,
which became effective July 1, 1917.118
University of Toledo. Toledo University established its College of
Pharmacy in 1905; it was the last school
or college of pharmacy to be orga-
nized in Ohio and the only one organized
after 1885 that survived.119 The
impetus for the new College, however,
had come from a proposed merger pre-
sented to the trustees of the University
a few months earlier by the trustees of
the foundering Toledo Medical College, a
trouble-ridden, mediocre proprietary
school founded in 1882.120 Prior to the
merger, the University itself con-
118. Sonnedecker, Kremers and
Urdang's History of Pharmacy, 246; and J[oseph] W.
England, "The Status of
Prerequisite Laws and Pharmaceutical Licensure," American Journal
of Pharmacy, 93 (August, 1921), 539-40. Also see "Instruction
by Correspondence" in Robert
A. Buerki, "Historical Development
of Continuing Pharmaceutical Education in American
Universities," (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1972), 25-31.
119. The Queen City College of Pharmacy
was organized in Cincinnati in 1912, but operated
on an independent basis for only two
years before merging with Wilmington College in 1914
and, subsequently, with the Cincinnati
College of Pharmacy in 1920. See nn. 95 and 96 supra.
Years later, James H. Beal observed that
"after the Ohio State University began to grow a
number of independent colleges either
closed their doors or consolidated with other institu-
tions." Letter, J[ames] H. Beal to
Edward Kremers, December 14, 1931, Kremers Reference
Files.
120. The College granted its first M.D.
degrees in 1883, following a nongraded lecture
course of twenty weeks; tuition was $75.
The following year, the course was expanded to a
graded course of two consecutive
sessions. Between 1886 and 1892, however, local physi-
cians and even faculty members of the
College filed charges with the Illinois State Board of
Health on three separate occasions,
charging that minimum requirements for medical educa-
tion were not being observed. The Board
temporarily refused to recognize the diplomas of the
College, causing a slump in attendance.
To bring the College back into good repute, the faculty
voted to add a third series of lectures.
Merger attempts with Heidelberg College and St. John's
University having failed, the College
trustees entered into a five-year lease agreement with
Toledo University on June 25, 1904. In
return for a yearly rental of $1,000 the University
would maintain the College's property,
pay its taxes, and maintain and conduct "a school of
Regular Medicine and Surgery . . . [and]
a College of Pharmacy and College of Dentistry."
Unfortunately, the impoverished
University could not honor its obligation, placing the College
in a severe financial crisis. The 1910
Flexner Report characterized the College as one of 56
schools whose continuance could not be
justified on the basis of their meager resources. After
an investigation, the Council on Medical
Education of the American Medical Association
placed the College on the discredited
"Class C" list, and prospective medical students were
warned against enrolling. In 1913, 55
local physicians petitioned the Ohio State Medical Board
to suspend operation of the College
since it "has not been and is not now adequately equipped
for the education of medical students
either in laboratory or clinical opportunities." In January,
1914, the Board decided to refuse to
recognize credits for work done at the College during
1913 and 1914; the College closed its
doors shortly thereafter. Nearly fifty years would elapse
before serious efforts again were
undertaken to make Toledo the site of a medical college.
See Frank R. Hickerson, The Tower
Builders; the Centennial Story of the University of Toledo
(Toledo, 1972), 109-18; Max T. Schnitker
and Walter H. Hartung, Jr., The History of the
Toledo Medical College, 1882-1914 (Toledo, 1969), 54-55; A[lbert] E. Macomber, The
Futility
of the Attempt to Establish a
Municipal University Under the Shadow of a Great State University
and in a City with a Population of
Less than 200,000 (Toledo, 1913), 4-11
and 20-27; and
Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in
the United States and Canada: A Report to the
82 OHIO
HISTORY
sisted of only a noncollegiate manual
training school; thus, the Toledo
Medical College and the new College of
Pharmacy became the University's
first degree-granting departments.121
As dean of the new College of Pharmacy,
the University's Board of
Directors chose William MacKendrie Reed,
Ph.G., Ph.C., a graduate of Ohio
Northern University. Reed's seven-man
faculty offered a two-year, graded cur-
riculum of twenty-six weeks per year,
the minimum demanded by the Ohio
State Board of Pharmacy, and offered a
standard curriculum of pharmacy,
botany, chemistry, biology, materia
medica, microscopy, and physiology.
The College granted the Ph.G. degree
upon successful completion of the
work. Tuition was $45 per year. For the
less ambitious, the College also
offered a thirteen-week review course
for $20.122 By 1906, the College ex-
panded its school year to twenty-eight
weeks and could offer an additional year
consisting "very largely of
Laboratory work" and leading to the Ph.C. degree.
The popular review course was also
extended to twenty-eight weeks.
Moreover, like its sister Department of
Pharmacy at the Ohio Medical
University in Columbus, the College
maintained a "free dispensary" as part of
the free clinic of the Medical College,
where pharmacy students could secure
"the most practical experience
obtainable."123 Though undoubtedly hampered
Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching. Bulletin No.
4 (Boston, 1910), 140.
"The school has nothing that can be
fairly dignified by the name of laboratory," Flexner re-
ported, noting that the clinical
facilities were "entirely inadequate." Ibid., 287-88.
121. The University itself was founded
as a private university in 1872 by Jesup W. Scott and
incorporated by "The Toledo
University of Arts and Trades." In 1884, the Toledo City Council
adopted an ordinance establishing Toledo
University as a municipal university; until 1906, the
University was a polytechnic school
doing "pioneer work in the field of manual and industrial
training," having survived
competing manual training schools, squabbles over tax levies, and
struggles with the Toledo Board of
Education over control of finances and facilities. During
the next few years, "more or less
temporary affiliations" were made with a number of local
professional schools. The University was
reorganized in 1909, conferring its first baccalaure-
ate degree the following year. The
institution assumed its present name in 1940 and became a
state-supported university in 1967.
"Introductory Sketch," The University Junior College: A
Book Outlining the Junior College
Opportunities Offered by the City of Toledo in the Day
Sessions of its University (Toledo, 1922), 41, University of Toledo Archives, Ward
M. Canaday
Center, William S. Carlson Library,
University of Toledo [hereinafter referred to as
"University of Toledo
Archives"]; and Nickerson, op. cit., 5-6, 21-23, 48-51, 69-71, 74-77, 93-
97, 102-05, 119, and 341-43.
122. "The Course of Study" and
"Tuition-Pharmacy Department," Bulletin of Information,
The Toledo University . . .
Containing the Twenty-First Annual Announcement, 1905-1906
(Toledo, 1905), 56-57, University of
Toledo Archives. The original faculty consisted of Park
L. Myers, M.D., who taught chemistry and
toxicology, Waldo M. Bowman, Ph.G., who taught
botany and pharmacognosy, A. J.
Girardot, M.D., who taught materia medica, Clarence D.
Selby, M.D., who taught histology and
microscopy, John S. Pule, LL.B., M.D., who taught
physiology, and R. C. Atton, who taught
dispensing. Pharmacy students took their biology, ma-
teria medica, chemistry, histology, and
physiology with the medical students of the Toledo
Medical College. "Faculty,"
53, in ibid.
123. "Announcement,"
"Course Leading to the Degree of Ph.C.," and "Free
Dispensary,"
Bulletin of Information, Toledo
Medical College, Medical Department, Toledo University,
Twenty-Sixth Annual Announcement,
Catalog of Session, 1906-1907, 2
(July, 1906), 26 and 31,
Pharmaceutical Education
83
by its association with the unsavory
Medical College and by low enroll-
ments, the College of Pharmacy struggled
gamely on, extending its school
year to thirty-two weeks in 1910 and to
thirty-four weeks in 1917.124
Finally, by 1926, the College offered an
optional four-year B.S. program to
supplement its two- and three-year
degree programs; the four-year curriculum
became mandatory in September, 1933.125
The End of an Era
By 1905, the free-wheeling era of the
schools and colleges of pharmacy in
Ohio had been brought to a close. On
October 14, 1904, the Ohio State
Board of Pharmacy adopted resolutions
which not only established at least one
year of high school as a minimum
condition of admission to the schools and
colleges it would recognize in good
standing, but specified that such institu-
tions should posses "adequate
equipment for teaching pharmacy in all its
branches, including laboratory facilities
and apparatus," and "adequate and
competent faculty for instruction"
in the specified branches of pharmacy,
chemistry, materia medica, microscopy,
physiology, and botany. Moreover,
the Board required an attendance of 80
percent upon two graded courses of not
less than twenty-six weeks in two
separate years and an average grade of 75
percent on examination as a condition of
graduation.126
Up to 1884, Baldwin College and the
Cincinnati College of Pharmacy had
graduated only 225 students; between
1885 and 1905, the combined schools
and colleges in Ohio had graduated at
least 2,215 students, Ohio Northern
University of Toledo Archives.
"There is a wretched little dispensary in the college building,"
Flexner noted in 1910. Flexner, op.
cit., 288. The Ph.C. curriculum was later described as
consisting of commercial inorganic
analysis and metallurgy, commercial organic analysis, and
laboratory work in bacteriology and
physiology. "Course Leading to the Degree of Ph.C.,"
Toledo Medical College, Medical
Department, Toledo University, Twenty-Seventh
Annual
Announcement, Catalog of Session,
1907-1908 (Toledo, 1907), 31,
University of Toledo
Archives.
124. "The Course of Study,"
Toledo University Bulletin, September, 1910 and "The Course
of Study," Toledo University...
Catalog and Announcements, 1917-1918, 8 (March, 1917), 89,
University of Toledo Archives.
125. "Required Courses in
Pharmacy," The University of the City of Toledo, The Catalog,
1925-1926, Announcements, 1926-1927, 4 (June, 1926), 34, in University of Toledo Archives.
Up to this point, the College had
graduated only 110 students from its Ph.G. program and 3 stu-
dents from its Ph.C. program. See
"Junior College Graduates," ibid., 114-20. Also see
"Division of Pharmacy," Bulletin
of the University of Toledo. The College of Arts and Sciences,
11 (November, 1933), 17, University of
Toledo Archives.
126. See "Standards
Established" in W[illiam] R. Ogier, "Report of the Ohio Board of
Pharmacy for the Year Ending April 30,
1905," Proceedings of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical
Association, 27 (1905), 51-52. The new standards had been discussed
as early as 1895-96, but
no firm action was taken until 1901. See
W[illiam] R. Ogier, "Report of the Committee on
Course of Study in Colleges of
Pharmacy," Proceedings of the Ohio State Pharmaceutical
Association, 23 (1901), 30-35.
84 OHIO
HISTORY
University itself contributing 1,044
graduates, or nearly one-half of the total.
In contrast, the Ohio State University
College of Pharmacy graduated only
105 students during this period,
competing as it did with up to seven other
schools and colleges with much less
demanding curricula.127 Thus, unlike
the land-grant institutions in Michigan,
Wisconsin, Indiana, and elsewhere,
Ohio State University did not dominate
or preempt the function of higher ed-
ucation in the state, nor did it enjoy
an exclusive monopoly in the area of
pharmaceutical instruction. Rather, Ohio
State's potential lay not just in cre-
ating one more course in pharmacy, but
in its unique scientific base, its labo-
ratory resources, and the improved
academic standards that a state university
could best sustain.
127. The total cited is somewhat
conservative, since graduation data for National Normal
University and the Queen City College of
Pharmacy have not yet been uncovered. For specific
graduation data, see nn. 35-36 (Baldwin
University), n. 41 (University of Cincinnati), n. 44
(Cleveland School of Pharmacy), n. 66
(Ohio Northern University), n. 101 (Scio College of
Pharmacy), and n. 116 (Ohio Medical
University), all supra. During this period, the Ohio State
University College of Pharmacy had
graduated 45 students with the Ph.G. degree, 53 with the
Ph.C. degree, and 7 with the B.S.
degree. See [Charles L. Williams,] "Number of Graduates
Each Year by Sex and Degree," ca.
1958, Historical File, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio
State University.