Ohio History Journal

THE CHARCOAL IRON INDUSTRY OF THE

HANGING ROCK IRON DISTRICT--ITS IN-

FLUENCE ON THE EARLY DEVELOP-

MENT OF THE OHIO VALLEY

BY WILBUR STOUT

INTRODUCTION

The Hanging Rock Iron District, as defined by the

iron masters, embraced the furnaces and furnace lands

and also the adjacent properties over which iron ores,

limestones, and charcoal were gathered. It included

parts of Carter, Boyd and Greenup Counties, Kentucky,

and parts of Lawrence, Scioto, Gallia, Jackson, Vinton

and Hocking Counties, Ohio.

The district has an elliptical shape, a length of more

than 100 miles, a maximum width of 28 miles, and a

trend of 18 degrees east of north, which is close to that

of the strike of the rock strata. The area grew by ex-

pansion along the outcrop of the ore beds as the lines of

transportation were pushed farther and farther out

from the original means, the Ohio River. Within this

field all the raw materials necessary for the smelting of

charcoal iron were provided by nature in abundant

quantity.

The area south of the Ohio River was roughly 510

square miles and that north of this stream 1,290 square

miles. The district, in 1875, included 69 charcoal

furnaces and 16 coal or coke furnaces, the latter repre-

(72)

74       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

senting a progressive step in the iron industry. Iron

smelting in the area was inaugurated by the building of

Argillite furnace on the Kentucky side of the river and

by that of Union on the Ohio side. The former was

erected in Greenup County, in 1818, by Richard Deering

and Trimble Brothers and had a capacity of one ton per

day. North of the Ohio River in the Hanging Rock

District, the pioneer furnace was Union, built a few

miles north of Hanging Rock in 1826 by James Rodgers

and Company. These furnaces were successful, supply-

ing a needed want for iron in the Ohio Valley. Their

prosperity led to the building of others until after the

Civil War.

On the Ohio side the last charcoal furnace to be

placed in blast was Grant which was located on the river

bank at Ironton and which began operations in 1869.

South of the river such construction was brought to a

close when Iron Hills or Charlotte furnace was erected

in 1873 at Riverton, Kentucky.

Distribution, Names, Locations, Etc.

The distribution of these furnaces was as follows:

State        County        Furnaces   Furnaces

Kentucky                                                           Charcoal Coal or Coke

Greenup .............                     16

Boyd     ................                           4

Carter    ...............                            4                         2

Total ..............                             24                       2

Ohio

Lawrence ............  16          4

Scioto    ...............  9

Gallia     ...............  1

Jackson   .............. 11                        10

Vinton   ..............                             6

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley    75

State           County                            Furnaces       Furnaces

Ohio                                                                  Charcoal        Coal or Coke

Hocking  .............                     2

Total..............                       45           14

Total..............                       69            16

The names, locations, dates of erection, capacities,

and names of builders of the furnaces in the Hanging

Rock District to 1876 are listed below:

Charcoal Furnaces

Name                                                    When Daily

of        County   State        Built Ca-      Builders

Furnace                        pacity in

tons

Amanda      Boyd        Ky.    1829   5  Lindsey Poague

and others

Argillite   Greenup     Ky.    1818   1 Richard Deering &

Trimble Bros.

Bellefonte  Greenup     Ky.    1826  14  A. Paull, Geo.

Poague & others

Bloom       Scioto      Ohio   1832  15 John Benner and

others

Boone       Carter      Ky.    1856  12  Sebastian Eifort

and others

Buckeye     Jackson     Ohio   1851  12  C. Newkirk and

others

Buckhorn    Lawrence                   Ohio       1833     15 James and Findley

Buena Vista Boyd                        Ky.         1848     15 Wm. Foster and

others

Buffalo     Greenup     Ky.    1851  15  L. Hollister, Ross

and Co.

Cambria             Jackson              Ohio       1854     12     D. Lewis and Co.

Caroline              Greenup            Ky.         1833     3      Henry Blake & Co.

Center                Lawrence           Ohio       1836     16    Wm. Carpenter

and others

Cincinnati  Vinton      Ohio   1853  13  McClanberg and

others

Clinton               Boyd                 Ky.         1830     2  Poague Brothers

Clinton               Scioto                Ohio       1832     11 McCullum & others

Eagle                  Vinton               Ohio       1852     15 A. Bentley & others

76        Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

Charcoal Furnaces

Name                       When Daily

of        County   State Built Ca-       Builders

Furnace                        pacity in

tons

Empire              Scioto                 Ohio       1846      7 Glidden Brothers

Enterprise          Greenup             Ky.         1832          3      Clingman & others

Etna                   Lawrence           Ohio       1832      16    James Rodgers and

others

Franklin    Scioto      Ohio   1827   7  Daniel Young and

others

Gallia      Gallia      Ohio   1847  15 John Campbell and

others

Globe       Greenup     Ky.    1833   3  George Darlington

and others

Grant       Lawrence    Ohio   1869  16  W. D. Kelley and

Sons

Hamden      Vinton      Ohio   1854  16  L. C. Damarin and

others

Harrison    Scioto      Ohio   1853  12  Eifort, Spellman

and Co.

Hecla                 Lawrence           Ohio       1833      10    Hamilton & McCoy

Hope                 Vinton                Ohio       1854      14    Col. Putnam and

others

Hopewell           Greenup             Ky.         1832

Howard             Scioto                 Ohio       1853  15  John Campbell and

others

Hunnewell   Greenup     Ky.    1844   16  Campbell, Peters,

Culbertson Co.

Iron Hills  Carter      Ky.    1873      Iron Hills Furnace

& Mining Co.

Jackson     Jackson     Ohio   1838  12  Hurd, Young and

others

Jefferson   Jackson     Ohio   1854  14  Jefferson Furnace

Co.

Junior      Scioto      Ohio   1832   7 Young Brothers

and others

Kenton      Greenup     Ky.    1856  13 John Warring and

others

Lagrange             Lawrence           Ohio       1836      7      Hurd, Gould & Co.

Latrobe              Jackson              Ohio       1854      12    McGhee, Austin

and others

Laurel                 Greenup             Ky.         1848      12 Wurts Brothers

Lawrence           Lawrence           Ohio       1834      15 J. Riggs and Co.

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley    77

Charcoal Furnaces

Name                       When Daily

of        County    State Built Ca-      Builders

Furnace                        pacity in

tons

Limestone   Jackson     Ohio   1855  12 Evans, Walter-

house & others

Lincoln               Jackson              Ohio       1853      12        S. Baird and others

Logan                 Hocking             Ohio       1853      15    Dumm Brothers

Madison            Jackson              Ohio       1854      14    Campbell, Terry

and others

Monitor     Lawrence    Ohio   1868  13 John Peters and

others

Monroe      Jackson     Ohio   1856  20  Campbell, Bolles

and others

Mt. Savage Carter                        Ky.         1848      14    Biggs and others

Mt. Vernon Lawrence                  Ohio       1833      16    Hamilton, Camp-

bell and Ellison

New Hamp-

shire     Greenup     Ky.    1848  15  Seaton and Boyd

Brothers

Oak Ridge   Lawrence    Ohio   1856  15  Mather and

Mitchell

Oakland             Boyd                 Ky.         1834      7      Kouns Brothers

Ohio                   Scioto                Ohio       1845      15    Sinton and Means

Olive                  Lawrence           Ohio       1846      16    Campbell and

Peters

Pactolus    Greenup                     Ky.         1824      3      McMurty & Ward

Pennsylvania Greenup                 Ky.         1848      12        Wurts Brothers

Pine Grove         Lawrence           Ohio       1828      16    Hamilton & Ellison

Pioneer               Scioto                Ohio       1856      12       Colvin, Tracy and

others

Raccoon     Greenup     Ky.    1833  12 Trimble, Woodrow

and others

Sandy       Greenup     Ky.    1847      Young, Gilruth

and others

Scioto                 Scioto                Ohio       1828  12        Salters and others

Star                    Boyd                 Ky.         1847              McCullough and

Lampton

Steam                 Greenup            Ky.         1824      1 Shreeves Brothers

Union                 Lawrence           Ohio       1826      1  James Rodgers

and Co.

Union       Hocking     Ohio   1854  14  McManigal Bros.

78        Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

Charcoal Furnaces

Name                       When Daily

of        County    State Built Ca-      Builders

Furnace                        pacity in

tons

Vesuvius    Lawrence    Ohio   1833  10  Hurd, Gould and

others

Vinton      Vinton      Ohio   1853  20  Clarke, Culbertson

and others

Washington Lawrence     Ohio   1853  17  Campbell, Peters

and others

Young

America   Jackson     Ohio   1856  12  Powell, Oakes and

Co.

Zaleski     Vinton      Ohio   1858  15 Zaleski Furnace

Co.

Coal or Coke Furnaces

Alice                  Lawrence           Ohio       1875 60 Etna Iron Works

Ashland             Boyd                  Ky.         1869  40  Lexington and Big

Sandy R. R. Co.

Belfont     Lawrence    Ohio   1867 45   Belfont Iron

Works

Blanche              Lawrence           Ohio       1875 60         Etna Iron Works

Fulton                Jackson              Ohio       1865  12             Lewis Davis and

others

Globe                 Jackson              Ohio       1872     20     Watts, Hoop & Co.

Huron                Jackson              Ohio       1874     12        Huron Iron Co.

Ironton              Lawrence           Ohio       1875 40         Iron and Steel Co.

Milton               Jackson              Ohio       1873  20        Milton Furnace

and Coal Co.

Norton      Boyd        Ky.    1873 45   Norton Iron

Works

Ophir                 Jackson              Ohio       1874     12        Bundy and others

Orange               Jackson              Ohio       1864     16     Watson and others

Star                    Jackson              Ohio       1866     17     Brown and others

Tropic               Jackson              Ohio       1873     17 Tropic Furnace

Co.

Wellston

Twins     Jackson     Ohio   1875  15 Wellston Coal and

Iron Co.

PERIODS OF FURNACE BUILDING

Furnace building went somewhat by spurts. The

first active period was for the three years, 1832-1834,

when 15 stacks were placed in operation. This was fol-

lowed by eleven years, 1835-1845, of quietness, only five

firms entering the field. Industrial activity again was

sufficient during 1846-1848 to cause ten furnaces to be

erected, mainly in Kentucky. Owing to the projection

of railroads into undeveloped areas in Ohio, the most

energetic period of furnace building was the four years,

1853-1856, when 21 stacks were added.   The total

reached in 1856 in the Hanging Rock Iron District

was 65.

OUTSTANDING FEATURES

The outstanding furnace of the charcoal group was

Hecla. Its fame, however, was due not so much to the

superiority of the furnace as to its great iron master,

John Campbell. Vesuvius furnace gained prominence

among the iron-workers, because there in 1836 was in-

troduced the use of hot blast instead of cold air for the

smelting operation. Under the management of Robert

Hamilton, in 1844, Pine Grove was the first furnace to

suspend operations on Sunday. The results were so

satisfactory that other furnaces followed the practice.

Monroe, through its size and rich limestone ore, was

noted for its capacity, making as much as 20 tons per

day. Keystone, due to its location, to the general clean-

liness of the ground, and to its schools, churches, and

(79)

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  81

residences, was the model furnace of the district. Jef-

ferson is outstanding not only for a long and successful

campaign, but because it was the last charcoal furnace

in Ohio to yield to the competition of the coke furnaces.

It was placed in blast in 1854 and suspended operations

in January, 1917. In fact, most of these old charcoal

furnaces were interesting for some phase, quality or

originality such as ore supply, furnace location or equip-

ment, operating conditions, personnel of management or

labor, social life, marketing conditions, quality of

iron, etc.

DEVELOPMENT OF AREA

The charcoal furnaces caused a rapid, early develop-

ment of the region which as previously stated occupied

an area of approximately 1,800 square miles. The en-

tire 69 charcoal stacks were built in a span of 56 years,

1818-1873, inclusively. The addition was thus over one

furnace per year. During the main period of furnace

building, 1832-1856, this rate was more than doubled,

for 55 furnaces were erected in 25 years. On account

of such development, both capital and labor were at-

tracted to the area. Many of the managers, foundry-

men, and colliers came from the iron districts of Penn-

sylvania, Virginia, or New Jersey and a few from even

England or Germany. This was also true of the trades-

men. Through these men and their influence much out-

side capital was brought into the district and, what was

of most importance, it was put to work either in the

iron industry directly, or in trade, transportation, or

agriculture. The labor, in like manner, was gathered

from a wide field. Many of the furnace hands had

migrated westward with the industry from the iron

Vol. XLII--6

82       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

regions east of the Appalachian Mountains. Small num-

bers of raw immigrants especially those of Irish, Welsh,

Scotch, English and German descent were attracted to

the area on account of the labor opportunities. They

found work mainly in the ore mines and around the

charcoal pits. The wood choppers, as would be expected,

were gathered largely from adjacent areas of the

forested Alleghany Plateau. They were at home in the

woods and were skilled axmen. The teamsters were

recruited mainly from either the farms or the sawmills

of the adjacent areas. Colored labor did not appear at

the furnaces until after the Civil War and then only in

small numbers and at only a few places.

DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE

Through the influence of the furnaces the people

were well distributed over the entire area instead of be-

ing concentrated at a few places. However, through

better shipping facilities, more furnaces were erected

within reach of the Ohio River than were built farther

inland. In general, the furnaces were rather uniformly

spaced from three to five miles apart along the outcrops

of the Ferriferous and the Mercer ores. The area

covered was over 100 miles in length and from 10 to 25

miles in width. The distribution of the furnaces in the

Hanging Rock District is shown in Map 1. The re-

quirements for the early furnaces or those erected be-

fore 1840 were ordinarily placed at 100 men and 50

yokes of oxen. Those for the larger furnaces built later

were considerably more, running even as high as 200

laborers and 100 teams. Each furnace thus constituted

a small settlement or village in itself.

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  83

DIVERSITY OF LABOR

The charcoal furnaces provided a diversity of labor,

as many tasks were required for the production of iron.

The chief duties were erection and repair of the furnace,

chopping and charring the wood, mining ore and lime-

stone, hauling stock to the furnace, smelting the ores,

hauling the iron to the market or to the place of ship-

ment, dispensation of food for man and beast through

the company store, and general management of the en-

tire operation.

BUILDING OF THE FURNACE

With few exceptions the outer wall of the stack and

the retaining wall for the stack yard were built of sand-

stone from some convenient ledge nearby. The stone

was quarried, blocked out in the rough, and hauled to

the furnace site where the pieces were then dressed to

the desired shape by the stonecutter and laid in the wall

by the builder. The stone for the inner lining was

selected with more care as the desired material was a

fine grained, rather dense, clay-bonded sandstone with

good refractory qualities. Usually this was obtained

at no great distance as favored quarries were located at

Junior, Hecla, Howard, Jefferson, and Richland fur-

naces. The stone for the lining was carefully dressed,

because it was required to fit the circular battered wall

of the furnace. The masonry was laid in a mortar com-

posed of sand and plastic clay. The cast-house, engine-

house, head-house, and stock sheds were constructed of

wood obtained from the furnace grounds. The frame

was usually poles or hewn beams and the siding and

sheeting just rough sawed lumber. The chief roofing

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  85

material was oak shingles riven by hand. Thus, with

the exception of some machinery and equipment such as

engines, pumps, boilers, and rings for the stoves, these

old charcoal furnaces were constructed of materials

gathered nearby and were erected by men from the

district.

CAPACITY OF FURNACES

The well equipped hot-blast charcoal furnace made

approximately 3,000 tons of iron per year. The con-

sumption of fuel was, on the average, 3.79 cords of wood

or 137 bushels of charcoal per ton of pig iron. The

yearly requirement in terms of wood was thus 11,370

cords. With the cold-blast charcoal furnace the annual

tonnage was not far from 2,000 tons. Under these con-

ditions of smelting, the fuel necessary was considerably

greater, as 5.84 cords of wood or 215 bushels of char-

coal were necessary to make one ton of iron. Such a

cold-blast furnace used 11,680 cords of wood per year.

Thus, the mean requirement of the furnaces of the area

was not far from 11,500 cords per annum.

CHOPPING OF THE WOOD

Only the most skilled axman could cut and then

rank three cords of wood per day. With the average

workman two cords were considered a fair day's work.

The cutting of wood usually extended from the middle

of October to the middle of April or for a period of

about six months. Deducting holidays, stormy days,

etc., the average working time would not exceed 20 days

per month or 120 days per season. On this basis 48

men were required to produce the 11,500 cords of wood

necessary for the blast of the furnace.

86      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

Virgin timber produced approximately 40 cords of

wood per acre and average second-growth not far from

20 cords. Hence, with a furnace in full operation, the

area of timber land worked over each year would vary

from 200 to 600 acres. The acreage generally considered

sufficient by the furnace manager was between 300 and

350 acres. As the period for renewal of timber for wood

was 20 to 30 years, the furnace tracts necessarily ranged

from 6,000 to 10,000 acres. Wood chopping thus placed

a group of men with each operating furnace, distributed

them over the timbered areas, and kept them moving

somewhat from year to year.

CHARCOAL MAKING

Charcoal making, one of the particular and im-

portant operations in connection with iron production,

was carried on by men, known as colliers, who were

trained in the work and followed it from year to year.

During the process of firing the pits of wood, careful

attention had to be given day and night in order to con-

trol the activity of the fires and prevent loss either

through the complete consumption of the wood to ashes

or through only partial charring producing brands. The

colliers were a hardy lot, enduring much from the heat

and dust of the pits and from the adversities of the

elements.

A hearth upon which to burn the charcoal was made

by leveling off a circular area 40 to 50 feet in diameter.

The location chosen was generally in the valley along a

stream where water was available for quenching the

freshly drawn charcoal. To this hearth the wood was

hauled on sleds by oxen. The small wood known as lap-

88       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

in turn with a few inches of earth or charcoal dust, well

compacted to prevent circulation of air and erosion by

rains. The charring process was commenced by start-

ing a fire in the opening in the center of the pit. After

the kindling was well ignited the cavity was filled with

wood and brands and then covered with leaves and dirt,

the same as the rest of the covering of the pit. Suf-

ficient air was admitted through small vent-holes to

cause only a charring of the wood with the loss of the

volatile components. The rate of burning and the migra-

tion of the fire to the sides and to the bottom of the pit

was controlled by the system of air vents placed as the

collier saw fit. Through such means the wood was con-

verted into charcoal for use in iron smelting.

After the charring process had been completed,

which required from 12 to 20 days, the charcoal was

drawn from the pit, a small quantity at a time, and

quenched with water. Care was taken to keep that re-

maining in the pit so covered and smothered as to pre-

vent undue oxidation. This charcoal was then loaded

into the tall beds of the wagons and transported to the

furnace by four yoke of oxen. The bed of standard size

contained 200 bushels of charcoal. Such a load weighed

close to two tons. A bushel of charcoal contained 2,688

cubic inches and with average stock weighed 20 pounds.

The harder woods like oak, hickory, and maple made a

heavier, harder charcoal than the softer woods like pop-

lar, linden, and chestnut. The firm, compact charcoal

was more desired by the foundryman than the light,

spongy kind, because it crushed less under the weight of

the stock and because it carried farther down in the

furnace.

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  89

The labor involved in the production of charcoal may

be included under the following divisions:

a. Preparing the foundation or hearth. If a new

hearth were built, it required the labor of one

man for one to five days, depending upon the nat-

ural advantages or disadvantages of the surface

features. Re-use of an old hearth made neces-

sary only the raking back of the dust for covering

the pit. For this one day's labor was amply suf-

ficient.

b. Setting the wood. It took one man about two

days to set a pit of 35 cords of wood.

c. Leafing and blacking the pit. The task of cover-

ing the pit with leaves, setting the wood by

stamping, and then covering the whole with dust

or earth was equivalent to about two days' work

for one man.

d. Charring the wood. The time of firing a pit

varied with the practice of the individual collier,

with the size of the pit, with the dryness of the

wood, with weather conditions, and with other

incidental factors. The older practice was to

hold the fire for about 20 days, but the later cus-

tom was to push the firing more rapidly, com-

pleting the pit in about 12 days.

e. Drawing the charcoal. Under common practice

the labor equivalent of one man for four or five

days was necessary to draw a pit of charcoal.

The work could not be rushed. Only a small

amount of charcoal was drawn at a time and the

90       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

opening of the pit sealed rapidly as the exposed

fuel soon began to ignite and burn. Usually two

men worked at the task.

MINING ORE AND LIMESTONE

The mining of ore occupied much time and labor at

the charcoal furnaces as the supply was drawn, with

few exceptions, from the thin beds that outcropped in

the coal formations. As the entire area is hilly and

naturally dissected, with a relief of 250 to 350 feet, and

as the rocks dip eastward normally at a rate of 25 feet

per mile, the conditions favoring mining changed with

the position of the ore on the hills, that is, whether it

lay near the summits of the ridges, on the steep bluff

of the hills, or near the valley floor.

The strata furnishing most of the supply of ore

varied normally from three inches to one foot four

inches in thickness. Locally, however, small pockets of

ore were found two, five, or even more feet in thickness.

The three most prominent ores were the Little Red Block

or Lower Mercer, the Big Red Block or Upper Mercer,

and the Ferriferous or Limestone. The Little Red Block

ore lies usually from five to ten feet above the Lower

Mercer limestone and is a true block ore in that it mines

in rectangular blocks. The thickness varies from two

to six inches, but averages close to four inches. The

quality, for a coal formation ore, is everywhere good.

The Big Red Block ore, with few exceptions, lies on or

close to the Upper Mercer limestone or to that horizon.

In southern Ohio the ore commonly marks the place of

the limestone, as the latter is usually absent. The de-

posit may be made up of one, two, or even three distinct

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  91

benches of ore. The usual thickness of the bed is from

six to 14 inches and the mean measurement not far from

eight inches. This ore is rich in iron and was well liked,

especially where it had been weathered down along the

outcrop to a soft limonite. The most successful char-

coal furnaces were those located along the outcrop of

the Ferriferous ore on account of the wide distribution

and the continuity of the bed and of the quantity and

quality of the ore. Its stratigraphic position is just

above the Vanport or Ferriferous limestone, but the ore

is often present with good development in areas where

the limestone is absent. The horizon yields ore in two

forms. The lower one is an irregular sheet deposit lying

on the limestone or on that horizon and constituted the

dependable supply. The second form is large nodules

of ore which are irregularly distributed in a few feet

of shale that lies directly above the lower ore and that

was known as the "ore slates" by the miners. The com-

bined thickness of ore on this horizon was from six to

eighteen inches and the average measurement at least

ten inches. In general, the Ferriferous ore was richer

than the other coal formation ores and smelted readily

in the short stacks of the charcoal furnaces. Other ores

drawn upon for limited supplies in the Hanging Rock

District were Harrison, Guinea Fowl, Lincoln or Jack-

son, Sand Block, Boggs, Canary, Red Kidney, Yellow

Kidney, Peterson, Hallelujah, and Oak Ridge.

The ores varied considerably in quality. Under deep

covering all were bluish gray siderite or ferrous car-

bonate. On protracted weathering along the outcrop or

under shallow covering, the mineral siderite was changed

to limonite, the hydrated ferric oxide. The color of the

92       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

weathered ore ranged from dark buff through shades of

red to deep brown. The purity of the ore depended pri-

marily on that of the parent rock. Most of them were

argillaceous in character, others were siliceous, some

were decidedly calcareous, and a few moderately phos-

phatic. In the natural form the better ores had an iron

content of 30 to 40 per cent. Such ores on calcination

yielded from 45 to 55 per cent iron. In general, the

furnace managers estimated 2.63 tons of raw ore to one

ton of iron.

The mining of the ores was largely confined to strip-

ping along the outcrop, as usually only the weathered

limonite ore was desired. Along the sides of the hills

the operations were confined to narrow benches, but

often near the summits of some of the ridges they were

much larger in area. The old rule in stripping was that

one foot of overburden could be removed for one inch

of ore. The thickness of the ore, therefore, determined

the depth to which stripping was practical. Usually the

depth was less than 12 feet. The stripping was done

largely by pick and shovel and a wheelbarrow. Along

the ridges and on the more gentle slopes of the hills and

where the ore had good thickness, the team and scraper

were successfully employed. Most of the work was done

by men and boys, but such labor was also shared by the

women and girls. Where the ore was exceptionally thick

and was overlain by a few feet of shale for entry, reg-

ular drift mining was practiced, occasionally in a large

way. The most prominent areas for drifting were those

around Ellisonville and Dean in Lawrence County and

near Vinton Furnace in Vinton County. The hot-blast

charcoal furnaces, making 3,000 tons of iron per year,

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  93

thus required 7,890 tons of ore and the cold-blast fur-

naces, capacity 2,000 tons per year, thus demanded 5,260

tons of ore. For a bed of ore ten inches in thickness,

the yield estimated by the furnace manager was 2,800

tons per acre. The actual area thus worked over each

year was two, three, or more acres. The price paid the

miner for stripping and raising the ore ready for the

hauler varied much throughout the long period of char-

coal iron making. The common limits were usually be-

tween 50 cents and $1.00 per ton and the average not

far from 75 cents. Delivered to the furnaces the price

ranged from $2.00 to $4.00 per ton, depending on the

length of haul, the richness of ore, and other factors.

Considering one and a half tons of ore a fair day's

yield and 250 days a year for outside labor, the men

required in the ore fields would vary from 14 for the

smaller furnaces to 21 for the larger stacks.

The mining and the hauling were not the only labors

expended on the ore, for it was all calcined to expel the

volatile components and then screened to remove the

"fines" before it was charged into the furnace. The

elimination of the volatile matter, which was about 16

per cent in amount and which consisted mainly of hydro-

scopic and combined water and carbon dioxide, not only

saved heat in reduction, but increased the capacity of

the furnace. Moreover, this processing could be done

more cheaply outside than inside the furnace. The cal-

cination of the ore ordinarily took place at the furnace,

but occasionally this was done near the center of im-

portant ore fields, notably near Ellisonville and Dean in

Lawrence County and at Creola in Vinton. At all the

early furnaces and at many of the more modern char-

94       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

coal stacks, the ores were burned in large ricks or piles.

These were made by first placing a layer of logs on the

ground with air-ducts to the center of the ricks. The

logs were covered with fine wood and this with a layer

of ore. The ore was then covered with a layer of char-

coal brands and fine charcoal and this, in turn, by ore.

Layer after layer of ore and fuel were added until a

pile six to 15 feet or more in height was accumulated.

A fire was then started toward the center and at the

base of the pile and the mass allowed to burn until the

fuel was all consumed. The calcined ore was screened

to remove the fine, dusty parts before charging into the

furnace. At a few of the later furnaces, up-draft kilns,

patterned somewhat after lime kilns, were employed for

roasting the ore, as a more uniform product was ob-

tained. Through calcination, about 16 per cent volatile

matter was eliminated, limonites and siderites were

changed to hematites, and usually the texture of the ore

was rendered more open and porous, inducing ease of

reduction in the furnace. From two to five men were

constantly employed in the work.

Throughout the Hanging Rock District the Vanport

or "Gray" limestone furnished nearly all of the flux for

iron smelting. The stone was of good quality for such

work, was exposed conveniently for quarrying, and out-

cropped along the main line of furnaces. The quarrying

operations were crude, because the quantity of stone

used was small. Hand labor was employed in stripping

the stone, in drilling the holes for shooting, and in break-

ing up the stone for hauling. While many of the fur-

naces had limestone convenient, others were not so for-

tunate and had to haul their flux from five to 15 miles.

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  95

The Maxville limestone near the head of the Dever

Valley in southern Jackson County and near Maxville

in southwestern Perry County were used to a small ex-

tent. Keeping the furnace supplied with flux required

the labors of one man for mining and one man and a

team for hauling the limestone.

The average burden or half charge as calculated

from the practice at many furnaces was:

Ore, roasted ................. 1000 pounds

Charcoal ....................                                  28 bushels

Limestone ...................                                 62 pounds

The ore requirement to make one ton of iron was:

2.63 tons (2240 lbs.) raw ore to yield one ton (2268 lbs.) iron

2.21 tons (2240 lbs.) calcined ore to yield one ton (2268 lbs.)

iron.

From the above, the total materials necessary to make

one ton iron were as follows:

Ore, roasted ..................                         4950    pounds

Charcoal ....................                               137      pounds

Limestone ...................                                 307 pounds

The yearly requirement for the production of 3,000

tons of iron was accordingly:

Ore, raw                7,888 tons (2240 1bs. each)

Charcoal         411,000 bushels or 11,370 cord wood

Limestone                411 tons (2240 lbs. each)

FURNACE OPERATION

The operation of the furnace alone required from

20 to 40 men. The one of most importance was the

general manager who had charge not only of the fur-

nace, but also of the timber and ore properties. He was

96       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

always respected and in many cases was really a big

man in ability and in human interest. Directly, the

operation of the furnace was in charge of the foundry-

man or blower. His duty was to see that the furnace

was properly charged with ore, charcoal, and limestone;

that the slag was flushed and disposed of; and that the

furnace was in good repair. Some of these men were

very able in their work and eventually moved up to simi-

lar positions in the more modern furnaces. The duties

of the two engineers for day and night turn were to

look after the engine and the boilers. The charging of

stock took from five to nine men, depending upon how

much screening of ore and charcoal and breaking of

limestone was done at the furnace. A keeper and a helper

on each turn opened the furnace for the discharge of

iron and slag and regulated the air-pressure. The labor

in the cast house required the work of three to five men.

Here the iron was cast into pigs, sanded while hot,

quenched with water, and then carried to the cart or

tram-car. The pig beds and runner were also made up

preparatory for the next cast. One man with a horse

and cart was employed to remove the slag from the cast

house. Usually from two to four men were used on the

yard in piling iron, in loading wagons, in supplying sand

and clay for the furnace, and in cleaning up the yard.

At most of the furnaces, the company maintained a store

which required from two to three clerks and which car-

ried a stock of foods, hardware, clothing, and feed. The

office force, from one to two men, kept the books of the

furnace, paid off the workmen, and kept the record of

the stock used at the furnace. Others regularly em-

ployed were blacksmiths, carpenters and a crib tender.

98       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

nance. To this end the farms supplied grains, wheat,

and buckwheat for flour and corn for meal; fruits, such

as apples, peaches, pears, and plums; vegetables, such as

potatoes, tomatoes, turnips, cabbage, and beans; meats,

both fresh and cured; and other products; such as butter,

eggs, cheese, sorghum, and sauerkraut. For the stock

the yield of the soil consisted largely of corn, fats, hay,

and fodder.

Through such ready markets, with the fair prices

maintained, considerable money was made by the farm-

ers living within marketing range of the furnaces in the

Hanging Rock District and located on the better lands

of the Ohio, Big Sandy, Little Sandy, Scioto, Little

Scioto, and Hocking Rivers and of Pine, Symmes, Rac-

coon, and Salt Creeks. In fact, this was the period of

real prosperity in these areas. Most of the farmers

built comfortable homes and substantial farm buildings,

kept the land well cultivated, and accumulated modest

savings that eventually entered many channels of educa-

tion, agriculture, industry, and trade.

SHIPMENT BY RIVER

All the iron made by the charcoal furnaces of the

Hanging Rock Iron District from 1818 to 1856, except

small quantities used locally, was shipped by way of the

Ohio River, because this was the only artery for distri-

bution. The shipment included the substantial outputs

of over 40 of the 69 furnaces. The yearly tonnage of

these furnaces varied from 2,000 to 3,000 tons each with

a mean of not far from 2,500 tons. The aggregate an-

nual shipment was thus around 100,000 tons. Charcoal

iron was marketed mainly in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh,

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  99

but some of it went to the foundries and rolling mills in

Portsmouth, Maysville, Louisville, St. Louis, and New

Orleans. Not only was iron shipped out of the district

by boat, but large quantities of supplies for the furnaces

came in by water. This included much of the food for

man and beast, and nearly all of the clothing, hardware,

boots and shoes, and incidentals. Cincinnati and Pitts-

burgh were the main supply points, because the whole-

sale houses there were prepared to handle such trade.

The iron was carried to the markets by various means.

Small orders were shipped by passenger-boats or by flat-

boats, and keel-boats, which simply floated down the

river. In fact, these were the only means of transporta-

tion at that time. Later when towboats and barges

came in, all the large orders were carried to their desti-

nations by the more efficient methods of transportation.

Even after the advent of the railroad into the area

(1856), the river carriers still received a fair proportion

of the furnace trade. Thus, when fully considered, the

charcoal furnaces in the Hanging Rock Iron District

were an important factor in the establishment of river

transportation and in its development to a high efficiency.

Boating on the Ohio River during these days was prof-

itable.

FURNACES AND RAILROADS

The first railroads in the Hanging Rock Iron District

were planned for the transportation of iron from the

furnaces to the Ohio River whence it was taken by boats

to the markets. In Lawrence County on the Ohio side

of the river, the Iron Railroad, only 13 miles long, was

built from Ironton to Center Furnace by the owners of

charcoal furnaces along the route. It began active oper-

100     Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications

ations in 1851 and served Olive, Buckhorn, Mount Ver-

non, Center, Lawrence, Etna, Vesuvius, and Lagrange

furnaces. In 1883 it was connected at Center Station

with the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton from Wells-

ton which gathered iron from Latrobe, Buckeye, Key-

stone, Limestone, Madison, and Gallia furnaces. Later

the old Iron Railroad became a part of the Detroit,

Toledo and Ironton. On the Kentucky side a similar

railroad was built in 1867 from Grayson to the Ohio

River at Greenup. It furnished transportation for Pac-

tolus, Hunnewell, Laurel, Pennsylvania, Argillite, and

Buffalo furnaces.

The Scioto and Hocking Valley Railroad, which

after several changes passed to the control of the Balti-

more and Ohio system, began train service between

Portsmouth and Jackson in October, 1853. It was

routed to accommodate Scioto, Jackson, and Bloom fur-

naces and its building was a stimulus for the rapid erec-

tion, 1853 to 1856, of Pioneer, Washington, Monroe,

Cambria, Jefferson, Madison, and Limestone furnaces.

The completion of the main line of the Marietta and Cin-

cinnati Railroad, now the Baltimore and Ohio, in 1856,

led directly to the erection, between 1853 and 1858, of

Hope, Zaleski, Vinton, Hamden, Eagle, and Cincinnati

furnaces in central and southern Vinton County. All

the railroads built in the area before 1860 were either

influenced directly by the charcoal furnace trade or they

were responsible for the building of other furnaces

where their lines passed through the ore fields. Thus,

with the railroads and with the charcoal iron industry

in the Hanging Rock Iron District, each played a promi-

nent part in the development of the other.

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  101

LOCATION OF ROADS

Through the charcoal furnaces, hauling of some

product or other originated in all parts of the Hanging

Rock Iron District. Charcoal, ore, and limestone were

gathered from every part of the furnace lands and also

from many adjacent properties. Nearly all the pig iron

was transported by wagon either to the Ohio River or

to the railroads for shipment to the markets. Food sup-

plies were collected from various sources over a wide

area. Most of this was hauled by wagon. The region

was thus thoroughly traversed by roads, varying in

character from the sled roads through the coalings to

those highly worn by travel. Naturally the ones used

extensively were those with the most direct route, with

the least resistance as to hills, with the most firm foun-

dations, and with the best accommodations for the fur-

naces and the people. Main arteries of travel were soon

established and today these, with few exceptions, still

retain their importance as both regional and local thor-

oughfares. The charcoal furnaces definitely established

the road system of the area.

SOCIAL LIFE

In general, the life throughout the entire Hanging

Rock Iron District was very much the same, as the

people were doing like things, that is chopping wood,

burning charcoal, digging ore, making iron, and driving

teams. To some extent, however, each furnace became

a center of a particular social unit, due to the kind of

people congregating there, to the clustering of the people

near the furnace, to the main arteries of travel centering

at that place, and to a certain loyalty of the people for

Influence on Early Development of Ohio Valley  103

at its height. These usually took place at some of the

favorite homes with an old-time fiddler or two to fur-

nish the music. "Coon" and fox hunting were common

sports of the day and occasioned much rivalry for the

best dog. Often each furnace had a "bully" who pro-

claimed himself champion of the region and was willing

to fight for such glory. Each year the large circuses vis-

ited the main towns in the district. A circus was an

important event, necessitating a complete suspension of

all operations at the furnaces. On the whole, the social

life at the charcoal furnaces was original in many ways

and of a wholesome nature.

EFFECTS OF ABANDONMENT OF FURNACES

The closing down and abandonment of these old

charcoal furnaces caused a marked change in the entire

area. In only a few places were other industries intro-

duced to take their places. The furnace people were

thus forced to leave for other fields of employment.

Many furnace tracts, formerly supporting from 300 to

500 people, now have only an impoverished remnant,

often not more than a few families. The entire aspect

has changed; the furnace is now only a crumbled ruin;

most of the dwellings are gone or in a state of decay;

the church and school, even if standing, show long neg-

lect, and the furnace lands are deserted by the axman,

miner, collier, and teamster. The area formerly supply-

ing an active industry of much value is now devoted to

grazing land or to a timber or mineral reserve. The

value of the property has thus changed radically and its

ability to support people has decreased tremendously.

These tracts are now on the tax duplicate at low figures