Ohio History Journal

FLINT RIDGE.

BY WILLIAM C. MILLS.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE:

The explorations and studies recorded in this paper

on Flint Ridge were undertaken for the purpose of se-

curing for exhibition in the State Museum a complete

collection of the various kinds of flint found at Flint

Ridge as well as the implements used in quarrying the

flint from its natural bed. A preliminary examination

of Flint Ridge beginning at its western edge in Hopewell

Township, Licking County, Ohio, extending eastward

and ending in western Muskingum County, a distance of

practically eight miles, made it apparent that a more

extended and systematic study of the quarrying, manu-

facture, and distribution of flint objects was necessary

to enable one to cope with the many complex problems

arising from a study of the art of shaping the raw

material into artificial forms to meet the varied needs of

a primitive people.

As the search for specimens of flint and the imple-

ments used in quarrying progressed, it was found neces-

sary to examine a number of so-called pits, in search

of the evidence of quarrying flint and to find the flint in

its original bed, partly quarried, and this proved a very

difficult task in the region of the suitable flint for making

knives, arrow, and spear points, for this flint had prac-

tically all been removed from its original bed, carried to

workshops and made into suitable forms convenient for

transportation.

(91)

92      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

The examination soon developed the fact that prim-

itive man may have developed quarrymen who devoted

their time exclusively to producing the raw material and

turning over such material to a second industry, that of

roughing-out the blank forms. This, however, may

have been accomplished by the same individual but at

different times and places.

The third process comprised the art of trimming,

making into special forms and finishing blades or cores

ready for transportation.

Therefore, it seems that the three well defined steps

would give rise to three separate industries carried on

by the same individuals at different times or places or

by different groups of experts trained in their respec-

tive industry. The Flint Ridge quarries for the most

part show that the first and second steps were accom-

plished mainly at the quarries, because primitive man

found it uneconomical to transport blocks of material

of which nine-tenths would be thrown away as useless;

and further, the promising blocked-out piece might de-

velop seams or geodes of crystals that would destroy its

usefulness in making the desired implement. The work-

shop developed many such specimens, showing the ad-

visability of working out the form of the article to be

shaped in such a manner as to test the material and its

capacity for specialization before leaving the source of

supply. In other words, Flint Ridge became a great

factory site, in which two principal commodities were

manufactured and made ready to transport by man-

power over the entire state of Ohio and into other states

where the raw material was lacking. The two commodi-

ties mentioned were the flint blades, ranging in size from

Flint Ridge.               93

the small arrowhead to the blades for making into

spears, and the flint core, from which the flint knife was

made. The flint used for these purposes was found in

the region of the cross-roads directly north of Browns-

ville. The workshops in close proximity to the quarries

contained many rejects, showing that even with expert

selection many of the pieces were not adapted for

making the desired flint knife with a long, keen cutting

edge, so highly prized by primitive man.

As the examination of the quarries and the region

surrounding them progressed, many problems arose con-

cerning the probable prehistory Indians who did the

extensive quarrying. All the surrounding workshop

sites were examined but no implements other than those

used in shaping the blades were found. However, at the

west end of the ridge was located a large mound sur-

rounded by a circle made of blocks of flint and earth.

This mound was examined and the culture determined

to be the Hopewell, the highest in point of advanced

prehistory civilization in Ohio, showing that this culture

had established themselves at the site of this wonderful

supply of the most desirable raw material used in the

manufacture of artificial forms to meet the varied needs

of the primitive inhabitants. A detailed account of the

examination of this mound will be found in the pages

following the account of the examination of the quarry

sites.

I am greatly indebted to many individuals for their

assistance in the examination of Flint Ridge and espe-

cially to Mr. H. C. Shetrone, assistant curator, who

carried forward the work on occasions when other

duties connected with the Museum compelled me to be

94       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

absent; to Dr. Clark Wissler of the American Museum

of Natural History, New York, who spent a short time

in July, 1918, and again in August, 1919, for his help

and counsel; to Professor J. Arthur MacLean of the

Cleveland Museum of Art, for his assistance in the ex-

ploration of the mound located at the west end of the

"Ridge;" to Mr. Jay Clark, a resident of the "Ridge"

for more than forty years, for help and information

given and specimens presented to the museum. To the

many residents of the "Ridge" I wish to extend my

thanks for assistance in the laborious excavations made

in various sections and for specimens presented to the

museum.

THE FIELD OF INVESTIGATION.

Flint Ridge is a very irregular plateau-capped line of rugged

hills, located in Licking and Muskingum counties, about midway

between Newark, the county seat of Licking, and Zanesville, the

county seat of Muskingum.  The region is a part of the great

Allegheny Plateau which has an elevation of approximately

1,200 feet at the western end of the ridge in Licking, gradually

decreasing eastward, probably due to the greater eroding agen-

cies.  The Licking River, located about five miles north of

Flint Ridge, runs approximately east and parallel with Flint

Ridge and empties into the Muskingum River. The small rib-

bon-like valley plains, with small streams fed by springs from

the "Ridge", would furnish no means of water transportation to

and from the source of supply; consequently the only way to

reach the "Ridge" was by trails through the deep tangled forest,

leading to the great manufacturing industrial center of the pre-

historic Indian, in the region of Clark's blacksmith-shop, located

at the road-crossing three miles directly north of Brownsville.

It is striking to observe that the varied phenomena studied are

assembled within a radius of one mile of this place, and at the

extreme eastern end of the "Ridge". The flint occurring outside

of these two places was of no practical use to primitive man, be-

96        Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

cause of its unfitness for chipping into form on account of im-

purities.

In the region of the cross-roads the best examples of flint

may be found, as well as the largest quarries located on the

"Ridge".

An examination of the quarries developed the fact that

only a very small portion of the flint deposit was of use to pre-

historic man in the manufacture of artifacts, as much of the

flint was full of seams and cracks which did not permit of the

manufacture of a desired artifact with any degree of certainty,

as demonstrated by the many broken blades found on the site

of the work shop.

Another feature of the flint in this section was the presence

of countless geodes filled with quartz crystals.  The geodes

varied in size from that of a pea or less to large geodes of from

twelve to fourteen inches in diameter.  The quartz crystals

found in the geodes were usually small, but the large geodes

generally contained large crystals. Apparently the crystals, un-

less very large, were not used in any way and were thrown away

with the useless flint.

The flint found outside of the regions where it was quarried

is very porous and fossiliferous, and very frequently mixed with

calcareous or argillaceous material, which rendered it useless

to primitive man as far as chipped implements were concerned.

The flint at the west end of the "Ridge", in Licking County,

was especially useless to primitive man, but the early white

settler found it well adapted to the making of buhr-stones, used

in grinding grain into flour.  Near the western edge of the

outcrop of the flint, several partly formed buhr-stones, each

weighing a ton or more, may be seen where they were quarried,

upon the farm of Mr. William Hazlett, near the only large

mound located upon the "Ridge".

The flint at the eastern end of the "Ridge" is likewise unfit

for implement making but well adapted for buhr-stones. In the

early pioneer days of Ohio, Mr. Samuel Drumm quarried the

flint in suitable blocks and fashioned them into small hand buhr-

stones.  One of the buhr-stones complete and one partly shaped

Flint Ridge.                    99

Consequently the field of investigation was extended to every

part of the ridge where primitive man attempted to quarry and

make use of the flint.

GEOLOGY OF FLINT RIDGE.

As a preliminary step to a study of the evidence of human

industry on Flint Ridge, it is very important that the geology

of the place be reviewed.  Aboriginal flint quarries have long

been known at Flint Ridge, but prior to 1830 little was known

to the scientist concerning the geology of this region.  The first

writer referring to the aboriginal quarries was Caleb Atwater in

his "Western Antiquities", page 28, as follows:

"A few miles below Newark, on the south side of the Lick-

ing, are some of the most extraordinary holes, dug in the earth,

for number and depth, of any within my knowledge, which be-

longed to the people we are treating of.  In popular language,

they are called 'wells' but were not dug for the purpose of

procuring water, either fresh or salt.

"There are at least a thousand of these 'wells'; many of

them are now more than twenty feet in depth.  A great deal

of curiosity has been excited, as to the objects sought for by

the people who dug these holes. One gentlemen nearly ruined

himself by digging in and about these works, in quest of the

precious metals; but he found nothing very precious.  I have

been at the pains to obtain specimens of all the minerals, in and

near these wells. They have not all of them been put to proper

tests; but I can say, that rock crystals, some of them very beauti-

ful, and horn stone, suitable for arrow and spear heads, and a

little lead, sulphur, and iron, was all that I could ascertain cor-

rectly to belong to the specimens in my possession.  Rock crys-

tals, and stone arrow and spear heads, were in great repute

among them, if we are to judge from the numbers of them

found in such of the mounds as were common cemeteries. To

a rude people, nothing would stand a better chance of being

esteemed, as an ornament, than such articles.

"On the whole, I am of the opinion, that these holes were

dug for the purpose of procuring the articles above named;

and that it is highly probable a vast population, once here, pro-

cured these, in their estimation, highly ornamental and useful

articles. And it is possible that they might have procured some

lead here, though by no means probable, because we no where

find any lead which ever belonged to them, and it will not very

soon, like iron, become an oxide, by rusting."

100      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

In 1836 the first geological survey of Ohio was published,

in which Dr. Hildreth calls attention to the flint quarries in Ohio

and comments on their great extent, beginning in Jackson County

and extending north to Muskingum County, and calls the flint a

calcareo-silicious formation.

Mr. J. S. Newberry, Chief Geologist of the Ohio Geological

Survey, in discussing the carboniferous system in Ohio com-

ments at some length concerning the famous Flint Ridge:*

"The origin of the silex in these flinty limestones has never

been satisfactorily explained. It has sometimes been attributed

to hot springs, of which the water contained much silica, but

the general distribution of the flint and the immense number of

fossils sometimes contained in it, seemed to me insurmountable

objections to this view.  It appears to me more probable that

the silica was derived from microscopic organisms, such as the

diatoms.  It is well known that at the present time very exten-

sive deposits of silicious earth ('infusorial earth') are being made

in our lakes and lagoons.  These are frequently associated with

shell marl and sometimes bog iron ore.  In the Tertiary age,

even more extensive beds of diatomaceous silica were formed

than any belonging to the present age yet discovered, the polish-

ing slate of Bilin, ('tripoli'), Monterey, and Nevada 'infusorial

earths,' etc. In the older formations no such strata are found,

and yet it is hardly probable that the low forms of life from

which these beds of silica are derived are of modern date. From

some experiments recently made by Mr. Henry Newton at my

request, we learn that the silicious shields of diatoms are more

soluble than almost any other form of silica known, and it seems

to me quite possible that in the older diatomaceous earths the

individual forms have disappeared by solution, and the mass

has been converted into compact amorphous silica, such as we

find in our beds of chert.  I would, therefore, suggest that in

many parts of the lagoons which, from time to time, occupied

the coal area, the shields of diatoms accumulated in beds

of considerable thickness, and these, now blended and consoli-

dated by solution, form our Coal Measure buhr-stones.

"In this view, the wide diffusion of the silica and its blend-

ing with and shading into purer limestone as though deposited

in the quieter nooks of the broad lagoon, its association with

fossils and iron, are all harmonious and confirmatory facts.  If

hot springs had furnished the silica, we should be pretty certain

*Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. 2, page 142-143.

Flint Ridge.                    101

to find it impregnating other strata than the limestone, and

should probably find some masses or accumulations heaped up

about the source of supply, but we have discovered nothing of

the kind; and the careful observation of the facts in the case

has convinced me that the silica, like the lime, is indigenous and

not exotic, that is, that it accumulated particle by particle as a

sediment at the bottom of water where it was slowly drawn

from solution and fixed by some vital agency."

In 1878, Mr. M. C. Read, Special Assistant of the Geo-

logical Survey of Ohio, wrote the Geology of Licking County,

(Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. 3,) and I quote from his re-

port as follows:

"The number of this series found on the summit of most

of the hills in the south-east part of the county is the flint, which

is ordinarily regarded as on the horizon of Coal No. 6, the Great

Vein of Perry and Hocking counties, this coal being represented

by the thin and worthless seam underlying the flint.  I am dis-

posed, however, to regard the flint as the equivalent of the

'Black Marble,' so-called, of Coshocton county-which has be-

neath it a thin seam of coal, and is found in places only ten or

twelve feet below Coal No. 6-and the representative of the

drab limestone of Columbiana county, often found directly be-

neath No. 6.  In Coshocton county this 'Black Marble' often

passes into a chert, as do all the limestones of that county, but

none of them form so extensive and continuous deposits as the

flint of Flint Ridge.  Any one traversing this ridge for the

first time would be surprised to find such a deposit on such a

geological horizon. It simulates very accurately the broken-up

debris of a vertical dike, the fragments often covered with per-

fect crystals of quartz, the rock itself being highly crystalline

and often translucent.  It is something of a puzzle to under-

stand how such a deposit is found in a series of undisturbed

and unmodified sedimentary rocks.  The adjacent surfaces of

two blocks of the chert are often found covered with quartz

crystals of considerable size, as thoroughly interlocking with

each other as if one were a cast, and the other the matrix.  I

cannot imagine conditions which would spread such a deposit

over the floor of a sea or any other body of water. A substitu-

tion of silicious matter deposited from solution, in the place of

a soluble limestone previously deposited, is the only plausible

explanation.  This substitution has taken place over large areas

in this part of the State, and has left these silicious deposits

only upon the horizons of the different limestones."

102      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

Mr. Read inserts as a foot-note the following:

"The question of the origin of the silica, which so often

replaces the carbonate of lime in the Coal Measure limestones,

is discussed at some length in Vol. 2 of this report, and it is

there attributed to DIATOMS.  These microscopic plants, as is

well known, bear silicious frustules, which accumulate at the

bottom of some lakes and ponds till they form beds many miles

in extent and several feet in thickness. They probably inhabited

portions of the shallow land-locked basins where the limestones

were formed in such numbers as to supply silica for concretions

or cherty layers, and sometimes to replace the calcareous bed

entirely, just as we find the diatomaceous earths locally replacing

shell-marl in the bottoms of our lakes and marshes. The silica

which forms the frustules of the diatoms has been proved by

experiment to be unusually soluble, and in the flint beds, the in-

dividual forms have doubtless been either so completely dissolved

or so enveloped in soluble silica as to be lost. The quartz crys-

tals referred to by Mr. Read as coating the blocks and filling

the crevices and cavities of the flint, are evidently of modern

origin, and have been formed by a deposit of silica, from solu-

tion, in whatever receptacles were open to it."

Mr. Wilbur Stout in his Geology of Muskingum County,

(Bulletin No. 21, Geological Survey of Ohio), assigns the Flint

Ridge flint to the horizon of the ferriferous limestone. I quote

from Mr. Stout's report at length, as he covers the geological

phenomena of Flint Ridge:

"In ascending order the important rock stratum above the

Clarion coal is the Ferriferous or Vanport limestone, which is

also often called Gray limestone owing to its color. This mem-

ber is not persistent and is variable in character in the western

part of Muskingum County where the bed is above cover. How-

ever, the scattered deposits of this member may be followed

with some certainty from Perry County on the south into Coshoc-

ton County on the north. From Perry County it may be traced

southward to the large and important field in Vinton, Jackson,

Gallia, Scioto, and Lawrence counties, where it has characteristic

development and excellent continuity. Owing to many wants in

deposition and to rapid changes in character the bed is followed

with more difficulty from Coshocton County northeastward to

Mahoning and Columbiana counties where it again has good

volume, and from where it has been directly traced into Law-

rence and Beaver counties, Pennsylvania.

Flint Ridge.                    103

"Two well-defined phases of the Ferriferous member are

present in Muskingum County. In most of the county the up-

per phase is a bed of rather pure flint or limestone, in many

places several feet in thickness. The flint is best represented by

the massive stratum that extends along Flint Ridge from Poverty

Run in Hopewell Township, Muskingum County, to the Porter

School in Franklin Township, Licking County. Dr. Orton as-

signed this rock to the horizon of the Ferriferous limestone.*

"Miss Clara Gould Mark also assigns the flint to this horizon.

In 1916-17 the members of this Survey traced the stratum by

stringers of flint and impure limestone to Bairds Furnace, Hock-

ing County, where the member is a true limestone, definitely

known to be correlative with the more massive and persistent

Ferriferous beds of southern Ohio.  Further, in its extension

northward from Flint Ridge, Muskingum County, the stratum

undergoes many changes, as it may be represented by thin local

beds of flint, or by flint and limestone, or by limestone alone.

Along the ridge known as the Highlands, in Cass Township,

the horizon is marked locally by a thick bed of gray limestone

very similar to that present in southern Ohio.  North of this,

along Graham Ridge, in Coshocton County, thin beds of flint

again appear, and near Warsaw local deposits of impure lime-

stone were observed.  Similar conditions were noted in parts

of Tuscarawas County.    Although local, variable, and scat-

tered, the deposits of this flinty phase in Muskingum County

are sufficiently pronounced to be followed with certainty, and

in the opinion of the writer they are correlative with the Fer-

riferous limestone of eastern and southern Ohio."

"The flint beds of the Ferriferous member in Hopewell

and Franklin townships of Licking County are the largest in

Ohio, and were extensively worked by the aborigines, who dug

hundreds of pits along Flint Ridge in the mining of this ma-

terial. The stratum was evidently worked for a long period,

and the material, identified by its characteristic fossils, is widely

distributed.  Much of the flint chipped into arrows, knives,

scrapers, etc., and found in the burial mounds and earthworks

of the mound builders, as well as that similarly worked and

found on the surface in this and adjoining states, is from Flint

Ridge. The field is of exceptional interest both to the geologist

and archaeologist. The outcrop measurements indicate that the

light-colored bed of flint is from 1 to 10 feet in thickness, and

that it averages about 5 or 6 feet.  This stratum is directly

bedded on the shaly limestone, the thickness of which, from sur-

face indications, is from 5 to 20 feet, or even more. Owing to

*Geol. Survey Ohio, Vol. V. p. 870.

104       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

the slumping of the flint and to the nature of the covering no

good sections of the entire interval were obtained.

"Along the ridge at the head of Berry Run, in Hopewell

Township, the light flint is massive, and varies from 3 to 10 feet

in thickness.  The bed was mined by the aborigines more ex-

tensively in this locality than on either the western or eastern

part of the ridge.  A section taken in a ravine east of the cross-

roads follows:

Ft.      In.

Flint,  light  ....................... .....                                                           5

Limestone, thin to medium bedded. shaly. Ferriferous                      7

Covered     ...................................                                                       32

Sandstone, parts  covered  ................................. 32

S h ale  ....................................................  1

Sandstone ........................ 23

Shale, calcareous, with shaly limestone.            1

Limestone, dark siliceous ..............    ..                 8

Shales, calcareous, with shaly limestone.                                           5

Limestone, hard ......................... Lower Mercer                                3                6

S hale  ...................................                                                                                2

Limestone, hard  ........................            1                                          8

"In this locality the light-colored flint or upper phase of the

Ferriferous member is bedded on the shaly limestone or lower

phase.   No separation, except an irregular bedding plane, is

evident, thus suggesting that both rocks were laid down during

the same general deposition period.    In the above section the

interval between the Ferriferous member and the Lower Mercer

limestone is about normal for the region."

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE FERRIFEROUS LIMESTONE AND FLINT.

"The great value to the aborigines of the flint beds of the

Ferriferous member in Muskingum County, and also in Licking

County, is attested by the large quantities of earth and rocks

mined in the excavation of the hundreds of pits scattered along

Flint Ridge and along its spurs. This Flint was certainly held

in high esteem by these ancient people, who used it in the manu-

facture of implements for domestic purposes, for hunting, and

for war.   Arrows, knives, skinners, scrapers, hoes, and drills

made of flint from this locality, and recognized by the remains,

are scattered over a wide area in the Ohio Valley and in the

Lake Erie region.   Their method of quarrying the flint and of

shaping the implements is a subject of interest, but it belongs

more to the province of archaeology than to that of present-day

geology and hence needs no further discussion here."

Flint Ridge.                     105

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FLINT.

"The chemical as well as the physical properties of the

light-colored flint on Flint Ridge are such that the material may

be utilized for the manufacture of silica brick or for potter's

flint of white ware bodies.  The deposit along the main ridge

for a distance of more than 5 miles was sampled by taking pieces

thrown out of the pits excavated by the aborigines. This sample

weighing more than 100 pounds was properly crushed and pre-

pared for analysis. The chemical work was done by Prof. D.

J. Demorest, who reports the following results:

Silicia, SiO₂ ...............................                                                   96.40

Alumina,A   .......................................                                          1.52

Ferric   oxide, FeO   ................................... .48

Lim e,  CaO  ........................................... .30

Magnesia, MgO    .......................................04

W ater,  comb., H₂0...................................  1.20

99.94

CHARACTER AND ORIGIN OF THE FLINT.

I have given the view of Newberry as to the origin of the

flint at Flint Ridge, which he attributes to diatomaceous plants,

a view acquiesced in by Mr. Read, who wrote the Geology of

Licking County, 1878.   Mr. Stout gives three views as to the

possible origin of the flint at Flint Ridge, and I quote from his

report:

"The flint in the black layers is very solid and dense except

for small cavities, which are irregularly spaced and frequently

lined with transparent quartz crystals.  The gray flint is also

solid, and has a banded and somewhat mottled appearance, prob-

ably due to original deposition, and the analysis shows it to be

anhydrous or nearly so.  The coal formation flints seldom con-

tain more than 2 per cent of water.  Flint has a hardness com-

parable with that of quartz, and it breaks with a deep conchoidal

fracture, the perfection of which depends on the texture of the

material.  This characteristic fracture is much more evident in

the compact, vitreous varieties than in the more porous, grainy

types which are mixtures of amorphous silica and quartz sand

or calcareous or argillaceous material.  It varies from nearly

transparent to coal-black, and from the strikingly mottled or

banded types to those traversed by small veins of different

colored material of later formation.

"Three views are tenable as to the origin of the flints as-

sociated with the limestones or stratified on the horizons of

these rocks:

106              Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

"(a)     That the flint was formed by direct precipitation of

the siliceous matter by silica-secreting organisms.

"(b)  That the flint was the resultant of chemical action

of soluble silica and other components in the sea water upon

the calcium carbonate of newly formed limestone.  In this case

the change took place while the limestone was forming or while

it was yet under the direct influence of the salt brines.

"(c) That circulating ground waters, charged with sili-

ceous and organic components which acted upon limestone de-

posited under normal conditions and buried by later sediments,

slowly removed the calcium carbonate and deposited silica in its

place.  This action began as soon as the beds were covered by

other material and is still effective.  Under this condition the

flint is entirely of secondary origin.

"In regard to the first view, it is necessary to account for

large quantities of soluble silica and a means of precipitating it.

The flint beds found in the coal formations of Muskingum

County are directly associated with limestones, or more often

occur on the horizons of these rocks.  Judging from fossil and

other evidence, these limestones are of organic origin and were

laid down in shallow basins of the sea.  The natural inference

is, therefore, that the flint has a similar derivation.  Some of

the low forms of life, such as radiolaria, sponges, and diatoms,

which inhabit both fresh and salt water, secrete silica.  Such

material secreted by an organism is hydrous and glassy and is

readily dissolved by waters containing carbonates of the alkalis

or alkaline earths.  Carbon dioxide from a living or a decaying

organism, however, readily precipitates this silica.  It is also

thrown down by hydrolysis in the presence of weak acids such

as may occur from decaying organic matter.    The rocks on

these flint horizons show that a profusion of life existed in

these early seas, a part of which was evidently silica-secreting,

and the presence, or rather decay, of which would produce con-

ditions often favorable for the direct deposition of silica.

"Some of the flint deposits in the coal formations of Mus-

kingum, Perry, and Coshocton counties suggest such an origin.

The material is very free from calcium and magnesium carbon-

ates, has the mottling characteristic of gelatinous precipitates,

and shows no distinct nuclei attending concretionary growths.

Further, the relation of flint beds to limestone strata in some

localities is also of interest. As noted in some of the preceding

sections, a flint layer may lie either directly above or directly

below a limestone which is very free from flinty material. Later-

ally the rocks often pass in a regular way from limestone or from

sandstone to flint in about the same way as shale to sandstone

Flint Ridge.                    107

or carbonaceous shale to coal.  Flint deposits are also nearly

as abundant in the Pottsville and Allegheny formations of this

area as limestone deposits.  With varying conditions in these

shallow seas where both siliceous and calcareous matter are be-

ing secreted, flint should result as one extreme and limestone as

the other.

"The second view is closely related to the first, but it differs

in that soluble silica replaces the calcium carbonate of newly

formed sediments.  As shown by several writers, the replace-

ment of the calcium carbonate of shells, corals, etc., by silica is

easily effected. The most favorable conditions would be where

both silica and calcium carbonate are being secreted contempo-

raneously by organic life.  Such silica is very soluble and the

calcium carbonate is in a state which can be readily attacked,

thus making replacement easy.                 The alkalinity and pressure of

the water also aid in this work.                 The waters of these ancient

seas contained a profusion of both plant and animal life, secret-

ing either silica or calcium carbonate; they were warm, owing to

the shallow depth and to the prevailing climate, and were par-

tially saturated with mineral and organic components which aid

in chemical action, all of which conditions favored replacement

changes attending deposition.

"Such an origin appears plausible for some of the flint

strata in the coal formations of this area.  In a certain bed,

as the Upper Mercer, for instance, flint may be overlain by

limestone or limestone by flint, or the two may occur in almost

any proportion.  Substitutions are apparent, but it is difficult

to determine whether they took place during the early period of

formation or during a later period by the action of circulating

waters.  The deposits are intermediate stages between a lime-

stone and a flint.  The limestones on these horizons are every-

where fossiliferous and, as would be expected, the flints con-

tain the same fossils, although they are less abundant and less

delicatedly preserved, with the possible exception of the FUSU-

LINA and other small types. The state of the fossils indicates

alteration changes.  The flint in local areas has a banded and

orbicular structure which shows secondary arrangement of the

matter.  Replacements in many of these beds are evident, but

it is uncertain how much is to be accredited to the early stages

of formation and how much to the later.

"Taking the third view next into consideration, the original

rock is a regularly deposited limestone covered by later sedi-

ments.   Circulating ground waters holding soluble silica and

organic components in solution attack the limestone, taking cal-

cium carbonate into solution and depositing silica in its place.

108      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

The flints are thus of secondary origin.  The chemical action

involved is the same as it is in the second case, except that it

is performed through the medium of circulating ground waters

in place of salt brines. The change is effected under less favor-

able conditions, but the force is operative over a longer time in-

terval. The action began with the covering of the bed by later

sediments and is still effective. The question is whether the ac-

tion of ground waters is sufficient to change thick beds of lime-

stone extending over wide areas to strata of flint.  On the

Boggs horizon the flint is from a few inches to 1 foot 6 inches

thick, and is rather local; on the Upper Mercer horizon the

volume varies from 1 foot to more than 10 feet, and it is very

persistent over a wide area, and on the Ferriferous horizon it

varies from a few inches to 10 feet, and is often continuous

for several miles. The variation in the character of these mem-

bers is shown under the discussion of their stratigraphy.

"The work of ground waters in effecting the solution of

one component and the substitution of another is well known,

and this action accounts for the nodules of flint in many of the

massive limestone and chalk beds.  It is a question, however, as

to whether this accounts for the origin of the thick beds of

flint in the coal formations of this area.  Where the section was

measured on the Lee Moore farm in Jefferson Township,

Coshocton County, the lower layer is composed of irregular

masses of relatively pure flint and limestone which are distinctly

separated, but with the flint constituting the greater part. Re-

placement of calcium carbonate by silica is strongly suggested.

Above this layer, there is 11 feet of thin to medium-bedded shaly

limestone containing practically no flint, and directly overlying

this shaly limestone there are two layers of flint which are only

slightly calcareous at most, and which contain no large irregular

masses of limestone.  If these two beds were originally lime-

stone the transformation from limestone to flint has been quite

complete. The series thus shows limestone beds lying between

flint strata.  If these flint beds were formed through the action

of circulating waters on limestone, subsequent to the formation

of the entire deposit, then the limestones occupying the middle of

the deposit should also show evidence of the same influence,

which is not the case. The structure of the deposit, therefore,

seems to show that these rocks were laid down in about the same

condition as that in which they are now found."

MEANS OF IDENTIFICATION OF FLINT.

Flint objects found upon the surface of practically every

portion of Ohio are very often difficult to identify as to source.

Flint Ridge.                    109

The flint from Flint Ridge varies greatly in different parts of

the deposit, but in the region of the pits the flint is very com-

pact, almost free from impurities, and possesses all the colors

and shades found in flint. Much of the flint is blue or a grayish-

blue translucent chalcedony.  In some places a glassy variety

is found in connection with the grayish-blue variety and ranges

from almost perfect transparency to complete opacity.  In an-

other section jasper predominates, with a wide range of color

from dark red through the various shades of yellow; also a

banded, or ribbon variety, with alternating stripes of light and

dark gray, brown and black.

In the central part of the great pit region southeast of

Clark's blacksmith-shop the flint has practically all been removed

from its bed, and here is found the most beautiful of the various

colored chalcedony showing the tints of blue, red, green, purple,

brown, yellow and white.

A careful examination of specimens of flint collected from

the various quarrying sites and the workshops is a necessary aid

in identifying the flint after it has been made into objects by

primitive man and carried to remote places.

In 1898 the writer undertook a microscopical study of the

flint from Flint Ridge with a view of determining the original

home of flint specimens found upon the surface in practically

every part of the state, as well as specimens taken from mounds

and village sites.  More than 100 thin sections were made and

studied.  The specimens from which the thin sections were cut

were secured from pits where the flint was quarried and from

the workshops nearby. Thin sections of flint from other known

quarries in the United States and Europe were made for com-

parison.  The microscopic thin sections from the Flint Ridge

flint proved of special interest and value as a means of identifica-

tion, as many forms of siliceous foraminifera as well as siliceous

sponges were in evidence, which would readily identify the Flint

Ridge flint.

Only a few of the microscopic thin sections from Flint

Ridge show diatom fragments and a few show nothing definite

in the way of fossils, but the general appearance of the compact

110      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

crypto-crystalline mass of chalcedonic silica as shown by the

microscope was a great aid in determining the Flint Ridge flint

when compared with flint from other sections.

QUARRYING

The primitive inhabitants of Ohio made use of various kinds

of rocks found in the drift, where the agents of nature-the

glacier and floods,- had with almost human discrimination de-

posited the tough granites and quartzites in convenient places

for man to select and reduce to available size and form  But

the flint, so highly prized for the manufacture of arrow and

spear-heads, occurs only in well defined areas, where the outcrop

was available and served as a guide to the location of the great

deposit a few feet under the soil.

Quarrying the flint really begins with the removal of a

fragment from the exposed mass or from the ground where it

was partly buried.  It is only a step further when the mass of

the flint is uncovered, and the flint removed on a large scale.

EXTENT OF OPERATIONS.

The extent of quarry operations in the region where the

valuable flint is found centers around the Cross Roads, three

miles directly north of Brownsville and known as Clark's Black-

smith Shop.  A circle with a diameter of one mile with the

center at the cross-roads would enclose about all the sections

quarried, and the extent of the quarried area within this circle

would not exceed 100 acres.  When we take into account that

practically all of the flint used by the various cultures represent-

ing the prehistoric Indian in Ohio came from the Flint Ridge

region, we can readily understand and appreciate the importance

of territory quarried. All trails leading in the direction of Flint

Ridge would end there, or in other words, Flint Ridge was the

trailsend of the prehistoric Indian in Ohio.  The accompanying

map, Fig. 3A, indicates the general distribution of the flint de-

posit as well as the location of the quarries as indicated by

excavations over the entire area.

Flint Ridge.                    111

THE FLINT STRATUM.

The flint stratum is very irregular in thickness and at no

place examined did the flint exceed six feet in thickness, al-

though other reports from various sections give a thickness

varying from five to ten feet. Directly north of the cross-roads

the stratum measures fully six feet, while following the pitted

section due north to near the edge or outcrop, the depth of the

flint measures only eighteen inches, and the top and bottom of

the deposit become very irregular and more or less nodular in

form.  The weathering out of small fossils and calcite crystals,

which appear in great abundance near the margins, makes the

flint appear cellular or porous in structure.  This condition

prevails in the greater bulk of the flint found on the ridge. Con-

sequently prehistoric man discovered that the greater part of the

flint was of no value for the manufacture of artifacts and ac-

cordingly concentrated his efforts upon the material that would

best meet his requirements.  This was limited to two sections;

namely, the region of the cross-roads, three miles north of

Brownsville, Licking County, and the region of the Flint Ridge

School, Hopewell Township, Muskingum County.    The terri-

tory quarried over in these two sections would perhaps not ex-

ceed 100 acres in extent.

METHOD OF QUARRYING.

After our examination of many of the quarries upon the

"Ridge" the most striking and marvelous phenomenon is that

the aborigines ever accomplished the removal of such a thick

stratum of flint over a so comparatively large area. Only those

who have ventured to remove the flint from its natural bed with

modern tools can appreciate the skill and perseverance necessary

in wresting from nature the flint needed in fashioning the many

artifacts, with such primitive tools.  These tools are found in

abundance over the entire site and in many instances where the

ancient quarryman had left them.

Mr. Gerard Fowke, while in the employ of the Bureau of

Ethnology, made a systematic study of "Flint Ridge" and his

report appears in the annual report of the Smithsonian Institu-

112      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

tion for 1884, and in his work entitled the "Archaeological His-

tory of Ohio" published in 1902.  Mr. Fowke spent much time

in a personal examination of the entire "Ridge" and his recorded

observations on the method of quarrying the flint are of especial

interest and value.  I quote from his report to the Bureau of

Ethnology, published in Smithsonian Report, 1884, page 864:

"How these ancients knew where to find the best flint for

their purposes, unless indeed these sites were chosen at random,

cannot be told. It also remains a question as to how the flint

was quarried after its location was determined. No doubt a thor-

ough examination of some of these pits will throw much light

upon the methods in use among them for obtaining the raw

material."

Quoting further from the same report, page 867:

"The aborigines (meaning thereby Indians, Mound Builders,

or whatever other name may be assigned to the people who did

this work) knew that by digging into the unweathered bed-rock

a quality of flint could be obtained better suited to their pur-

poses than that which could be procured along the outcrop. The

dirt was cleared away, by being carried out in baskets or skins,

until the flint was exposed. Cleaning out a space sufficient for

working purposes, a fire was built on top of the rock, and when

it was heated water was thrown on it. This would cause the

rock to crumble, and on clearing out the fragments a fresh sur-

face of flint would be exposed around the hole thus made in it,

from which pieces could be broken-off with the large boulders

found in the vicinity.  A question presents itself here, 'If this

method was used, why did they not follow the flint stratum, once

they had found it, throwing the dirt behind them, instead of open-

ing so many fresh holes?' The only answer to be given is that

they did not, except in a few instances, and that is all we know

about it."

Later, Mr. Fowke in his book "Archaeological History of

Ohio", page 622, goes into detail concerning the quarrying of

the flint by the use of fire:

"The pit taken as an illustration was at least forty yards

from the one nearest to it; it was thirty-two feet in diameter

inside of the wall of earth surrounding it, which wall is now

two feet higher than the general surface around it, and from

twenty to thirty feet across at the base.  This form indicates

Flint Ridge.                   113

considerable age; as does an oak tree nearly ten feet in circum-

ference, growing on the top of the wall. In clearing out this

pit we could appreciate the patience and industry of the abo-

riginal excavators. The clay subsoil was as hard and tough as

frozen ground; frequently half a dozen blows with a pick were

required to break off a clod as large as a man's hand. To re-

move it with primitive tools seems almost an impossibility. The

central part of the pit was filled with material that had washed

in from the sides.  Several days of steady digging were re-

quired, by three men accustomed to such work, to reach the

surface of the flint stratum, which was found at a depth of

nine feet.  A hole five by eight and one-half feet had been

worked through; clearing this out, we found the layer to be forty

inches thick.  It rested directly upon a solid bluish limestone.

Both the flint and the limestone showed that they had been

subjected to an intense heat.  The flint was very solid where

not burnt, translucent, and a beautiful light-blue in color. On

its top, on a corner formed by two seams, was a saucer-shaped

depression between three and four inches deep, in the bottom

of which was a handful of very fine chips; just such as would

result from repeated blows with a large hammer-stone, several

of which were found scattered through the entire depth cleared

out.  One of them weighed nearly or quite a hundred pounds.

"Careful observation of this pit-and others as well-

enables us to follow the prehistoric quarryman in his labors.

He selected a spot where he thought the superincumbent earth

not heavy enough to render the task of removing it too tedious,

but at the same time was of ample thickness to prevent injury

to the stone from weathering. He then sunk a pit, as large as

he wished, to the surface of the flint. On this he made a fire;

and when the stone was hot he threw water on it, causing it to

shatter. Throwing aside the fragments, he repeated the process

until he penetrated the underlying limestone to a depth which

allowed him sufficient room to work conveniently. The top and

freshly made face of the flint was thickly plastered with potter's

clay, after which fire and water were again utilized for clearing

away the limestone until a cavity was formed beneath the flint

layer.  Thus a projecting ledge would be left, from which the

burnt parts were knocked off with heavy stone hammers until

the unaltered flint was exposed; in the same manner, blocks of

this were procured for converting into implements.  Where

the flint was well suited for the purpose intended, or was easily

worked, the excavation was carried along in the form of a trench,

the waste material being thrown to the rear; under less favor-

able conditions the spot was abandoned."

Vol. XXX -8.

114      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

Our examination of the quarries upon Flint Ridge, made

with a view of ascertaining the method of quarrying, does not

bear out and verify the findings of Mr. Fowke concerning the

use of fire as an operating agent. On the other hand, the evi-

dence found concerning the use of fire as an agent in quarrying

the flint was purely negative, and I doubt very much if fire was

used at all as an aid in removing the flint from its natural bed.

I will go into detail concerning several of the sites examined,

quoting from my field notes made at the time of the excavations.

After a general examination of the "Ridge" in company with

my assistant, Mr. Shetrone, we marked a number of places for

examination, and this plan was systematically carried out.  The

first pit for examination was located in the woods north and east

of the blacksmith-shop, about 300 feet north from the road run-

ning east from the cross-roads.  The property is owned by a

coal company with headquarters at Newark, and is under the

direct supervision of Attorney R. E. Jones, who aided us in

every way to make our work successful.

The pit was selected with a view of finding the full vertical

ledge of flint exposed as the aboriginal quarryman had left it.

In this we were partly successful, the vertical ledge of flint

measuring three feet and seven inches, while one foot and

eleven inches of flint had been removed from the top surface

for a space of six feet by eight feet. The flint on the top ap-

pears in nodular-like flat masses, from two to three and one-

half feet in diameter, and the ancient quarryman, taking ad-

vantage of the seams between the nodules, was able to work

downward until the more desirable flint was exposed. The top

of this quarry was covered with about seven inches of soil,

accumulated during the more than a century since the early

settler came to occupy the land.  The top surface of the quarry

was more or less irregular, caused by the early quarryman fol-

lowing the cracks or seams, or the lines of least resistance in his

operations.  Not the slightest indication was found in this

quarry to show that fire had been used to supplement the ham-

merstones, several of which, varying in size from about a pound

to one weighing upward of twenty-five pounds, were found in

the pit. The hammerstones were made of granite and quartzite.

Flint Ridge.                    115

General indications shows that wedges, perhaps made of wood

or horn, were used in dislodging the desired pieces of flint.

Fig. 4 shows the face of the quarry where the flint is three

feet and seven inches in thickness. On the top of the flint lies

a large hammerstone of granite, weighing about twenty-five

pounds, which was found at the bottom of the pit.  A close

inspection of this cut will show the cracks and seams found in

the flint, which we later quarried out to ascertain why this part

of the stratum had not been utilized.  We followed the seams,

using iron wedges instead of wood and iron hammers instead

of stone, and thus were able to effect our purpose. The flint

was found to be practically worthless for making into artifacts,

and the entire mass of three feet and seven inches in vertical

height, two feet in thickness, and three to four feet in length

would have been quarried out and cast aside in order to carry

forward the quarrying operations, with a vertical wall or nearly

so to work from.  The ancient quarryman apparently did not

perform such arduous labor to secure the coveted flint unless

absolutely necessary, as was found to be true in many of the

quarries examined in the various sections of "Flint Ridge".

We also quarried samples of the good flint exposed on the

top of this quarry and found the prevailing color to be a light

blue-gray, translucent in thin sections, but frequently varying in

color from a dep red and yellow with shades of lilac. In many

instances, seams of translucent chalcedony extended into the

mass of the flint, sometimes only about one-eighth of an inch

apart, giving the flint the appearance of banded agate.  How-

ever, this banded flint when struck with a heavy hammer would

separate into needle-like forms which made the flint worthless

as far as primitive man was concerned.  The lilac-colored flint

from this quarry was often filled with very small geodes of

quartz crystals, which did not greatly interfere with its use as

implement-making material.

Adjoining the lilac-colored flint was a slightly yellow-colored

flint containing much chalcedony and larger clusters of quartz

crystals. The ancient quarryman had uncovered a cluster more

than six inches in diameter, the crystals ranging in size up to

one-half inch in diameter, colored a light amethyst, and very

Flint Ridge.                    117

beautiful. Another very interesting deposit of flint, known as

the brecciated form, was found in the highly colored red flint in

this quarry. These deposits are not much larger than a man's

fist, are usually oblong in general form, and are made up of

small angular fragments of flint which seem to have been held

in suspension in clear or slightly colored chalcedony.

After the work of examination of Pit No. 1 was com-

pleted, a good opportunity to try the experiment of quarrying

by the use of fire presented itself, for here was the bed of flint

uncovered and an abundance of dry wood at hand.   The fire

was kindled, and was kept burning for two hours, producing an

intense heat on the underlying face of the flint.  The fire was

then removed and two buckets of cold water were thrown upon

the surface. I fully expected the flint to break in large pieces,

but it merely checked and cracked into small pieces to the depth

of perhaps half an inch.  After the conclusion of this experi-

ment it was apparent that fire as a direct agent in the quarrying

of flint was perhaps not effective.  In this connection I may

state that at no time during the examination of more than

twenty-five of the pits and quarries in this section was there

evidence of the use of fire in the quarrying of flint. In several

instances small amounts of charcoal were found in the pits, but

so sparingly as to indicate that fire was in use around the

quarry but not as a direct agent in quarrying the flint.

The next quarry of special interest was No. 3. This quarry

is located not far from the outcrop along the cleared field on the

Coal Company's property, perhaps a little more than half a

mile directly north-east from the blacksmith-shop.  The pit was

seventeen feet long and fifteen feet wide, and at no point in the

quarry had the bottom of the flint been reached.  Near the

center of the quarry, to the west, a projection of flint extended

almost across the quarry.  Examination showed that the deposit

was a very compact variety of yellow flint, practically devoid of

seams, which baffled our own efforts at quarrying with our

modern chisels and hammers. We were very desirous of secur-

ing large samples of this highly-colored flint, and preparing the

stone for a charge of dynamite, were able to secure good speci-

mens of both yellows and reds.  Many instances exist on the

Flint Ridge.                    119

"Ridge" where the ancient quarryman was compelled to aban-

don the removal of fine flint, owing to the absence of cracks or

other defects which would enable him to work through to the

base of the deposit, and thus gain a vantage point for further

procedure.  Our blast removed the flint for about two feet

in depth and it apparently had the same consistency throughout.

This quarry is shown in Fig. 5.  The projection of flint

which the aborigines could not detach, and that portion of the

quarry directly to the north, are shown. The flint was quarried

from the top and shows many places where cracks were fol-

lowed and the flint removed. Fire was not made use of, as no

charcoal or other indications of heat were present. This quarry

was noted for its highly-colored flint, both red and yellow, and

the number of hammers, large and small, found on its floor.

Pit No. 4, shown in Fig. 6, is of special interest, as the

flint is exposed on two sides of the pit, for a distance of almost

six feet.  Cracks in the flint are quite noticeable. The crack

appearing at the angle of the two walls is quite large and evi-

dently the face of the exposed wall follows this crack.  The

quarryman at this point worked from beneath.    He found

the lower stratum of flint could be detached something like

limestone, as evidenced by the finding of slabs of flint a few

inches thick and eighteen inches across, while in another quarry

nearby slabs of flint that had been quarried from the bed but

not removed, measured three feet in diameter and two and

one-half inches thick. The flint offering the least resistance

to detachment seemed to be at the bottom of this quarry. This

flint was of practically no use to primitive man but by its

removal he was able to reach the good flint which, in this in-

stance, is practically in the center of the ledge.  Many large

single crystals of quartz, measuring from three-fourth inch to

one inch in diameter were found in the debris of the pit, and

some very large geodes of large-size quartz crystals lay near

the bottom of the quarry.  Large pieces of rock-crystal were

found in the workshops not far from this region and we have

in the museum a single crystal three and one-half inches in

diameter and five inches long, secured and presented by Miss

Clara G. Mark.    Miss Mark obtained the specimen, which

Flint Ridge.                    121

three exposed sides.  It was soon discovered that the quarry-

man was guided by two cracks in the flint running east and

west and about seven feet apart.   On the north side the

crack was two and one-half inches wide and on the south a

scant two inches wide. In the north-west corner of the quarry

was a large piece of flint, measuring three feet long and almost

two feet thick that had been broken loose when the rents split

the rock.  The break was caused by a large cavity in the flint

filled with beautifully colored crystals of green, yellow and

red.  At this point a crack occurred north and south and was

perhaps one-half inch wide.  The flint was six feet in thick-

ness and the cracks extended the entire depth of the flint. The

flint, although very crystalline, was of good quality for making

knives and arrows.  The color was a light gray with blended

shades of red and yellow and often certain sections would

shade into a leek-green, very likely due to the presence of a

trace of iron silicate.

The flint had all been quarried and removed from the pit

and at no point at the base of the flint were there indications

of quarrying under the mass.   However, on the top of the

west wall, the earth had been removed and the top of the flint

quarried out in several places to the depth of perhaps a foot,

showing that the quarrying was carried on from on top. Many

broken and perfect hammer-stones of granite were in evidence

in the quarry, but there was no indication of the use of fire.

Pit No. 9 is located in the Mary Loughman woods near

the north line of her property and about 200 yards east of the

northwest corner of the tract. The quarry was very much like

No. 3, as the quarrying was all carried on from the top of the

deposit and at no place in this quarry was the bottom of the

flint exposed.  A good photograph of this quarry is shown in

Fig. 7.  The quarry is fifteen feet long and twelve feet wide

and the photo shows practically the entire pit as the primitive

artisan had left it. The large mass of flint suitable for the mak-

ing of artifacts is shown to the right in the photograph. The

useless flint had been taken out from three sides and the photo-

graph shows that the removal was under way when the quarry

was abandoned.   We removed the large block of flint, which

Flint Ridge.                    123

was of very good quality and practically devoid of the small

drusy crystals so common in this quarry. The color of the flint

is a light gray with a shading of purple, red and yellow. The

block of flint shown to the left in Fig. 7 is a light drab in color

and the crystals shown on its top are quite large, some of the

individual crystals found broken from the clusters measuring

three-fourths of an inch in diameter.  Very little chalcedony

is found in the flint left in the quarry, the flint which doubt-

less was of especial value because of its quality and abundance.

The manner of quarrying is here best shown of any of the

quarries uncovered.

Pit No. 14 was of great interest. It is situated in the east

end of the Mary Loughman woods. The flint at this point is

covered with a very light covering of earth.  After the earth

was removed from the flint it had the general appearance of

a large flattened nodule ten feet in diameter.  Primitive man

had quarried off about one-third of the nodule, and found the

center contained a very large crystal of heavy spar, light blue

to yellow in color. We quarried out the crystal of heavy spar

and found it to measure more than four feet in length, two feet

wide and about fifteen inches in thickness.  When first found

the spar was perhaps a solid mass, but in time it became cracked,

as shown in the cut, Fig. 8, with the exception of the center

which was removed intact. Heavy spar, varying in color from

lemon yellow to light blue is found in connection with work-

shops and apparently is associated with the flint in many of the

quarries.  Its use by primitive man is not apparent, as no arti-

facts made therefrom have been found in Ohio.  Perhaps its

extreme weight attracted the attention of the primitive quarry-

man.

In all twenty-five different quarry sites were examined in

the vicinity of the cross-roads and no evidence was obtained

showing that fire had been used as an agent in quarrying the

flint.

The examination was extended to the eastern end of the

"Ridge" in Muskingum County, where evidence of quarrying

was found upon the farm of Mr. James Boyer.     Mr. Boyer,

like many of his neighbors, is a progressive farmer and all were

Flint Ridge.                   125

anxious to assist our survey in granting permission to examine

quarry- sites on their respective farms, as well as by presenting

specimens of flint found in the region. On Mr. Boyer's farm the

quarrying is more extensive than anywhere in the vicinity. The

flint is a light gray in general color, very often mottled with

subdued gray and brown shading to dark brown.

A quarry-site located in Mr. Boyer's orchard was selected

and a space fourteen feet long and six feet wide was removed

to the depth of six and one-half feet, where we found the origi-

nal bed of flint. Of this, about one foot remained in the quarry,

except at the south side, where the entire bed had been removed,

apparently by the same method of quarrying as was employed

at the cross-roads in Licking County. The general blocking out

was done at the quarry or along the hillside less than fifty feet

away. At no point on the spur of the hill where the orchard

is located is there an outcrop of the flint. Apparently the flint

has all been quarried out and worked over and the refuse left

at the quarry-site, as indicated by the five hundred or more

cubic feet of broken pieces removed in the examination of this

quarry. Practically no earth was mixed with the flint after the

surface had been removed, insects of various kinds being found

to the bottom of the quarry as well as the short-tailed shrew

(Blarina brevicanda) which was found very frequently during

our explorations.  This small mole is truly insectivorous and

had its habitat in the region where food was abundant.

In the woods north of the orchard on Mr. Boyer's farm is

an outcrop of flint, the remains of an ancient quarry.  The

debris was cleared from this quarry, disclosing that the flint

had been removed to the bottom. The perpendicular wall shown

as an outcrop was one side of a large crack in the flint, extend-

ing almost perpendicular through four feet of the top of the

deposit, then deflecting under the ledge. The flint had all been

removed to this break in the deposit, and the work of removing

the soil on the top preparatory to further quarrying was under

way when the quarry was abandoned.

In all, thirty-three quarry sites were examined by the sur-

vey, - twenty-five in the region of the blacksmith shop located

at the cross-roads, Licking County, and eight in the region of

126      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

Mr. Boyer's farm in Muskingum County-and all showed the

same use of the hammers and mauls in quarrying the flint. Per-

haps the hammers were used in conjunction with wedges made

of wood and bone and these latter in connection with large and

small wood pries or levers. However, the use of wedges and

pries is only conjecture, as no direct evidence in the thirty-three

quarry-sites was found to substantiate this assumption.  How-

ever, we feel the primitive quarryman would use the simplest

tools that would accomplish the desired results and that these

would be wedges of wood and bone and pries both large and

small of wood.

MANUFACTURE OF FLINT ARTIFACTS.

The first step toward the manufacture of flint artifacts is

securing the raw material by quarrying and the first step in

shaping this raw material, whether by breaking, flaking or chip-

ping, by percussion or pressure, was the "roughing out" of

blades and cores into convenient sizes. In this handy form they

were transported to practically all sections of Ohio, where caches

have been found in old village sites and in mounds.

As stated in the Introductory Note, perhaps the three well

defined steps in the preparation of raw material noted would

give rise to three separate industries carried on by the same in-

dividuals at different times or places or by different groups of

experts trained in their respective industry.

The first industry was that of quarrying which has been

fully described in the foregoing pages.  The second industry

was the blocking out of selected pieces of flint into general form

and testing of the raw material before it is taken to the work-

shop.       Very good examples of blocked-out flint are shown in

Fig. 9.      The blocked-out specimens found so abundantly at the

"Ridge" range in length from twelve inches to three inches and

in width from five inches to two inches.  They are frequently

found near the quarry but the largest numbers are found in the

workshops where the blades are finished. When found near

the quarry they are usually broken, showing that the piece of

flint was defective.  The blocking-out was perfected by the

Flint Ridge.                    131

The third industry connected with the manufacture of flint

implements is the shaping of the blocked-out pieces into blades

ready to be transported, with the smallest amount of superfluous

flint, to distant parts of the country. The blades were all shaped

in the workshops, which often were located in close proximity

to the quarry, in many instances only a few hundred yards

distant.  On the other hand, the workshop might be several

miles away; in fact both Licking and Muskingum Counties con-

tain many sites of workshops.   A very noted workshop is

located a short distance north of Granville, showing that the

blocked-out flint was carried some eighteen to twenty miles from

the quarries.

The leaf-shaped blades manufactured in the workshops were

of two types, the square base and the round base. The round-

based blades were usually larger. A fine example of the round-

base blade is shown in Fig. 13. The length of this blade is six

and three-fourths inches and the width three and five-eighths

inches. The square-based blade shown in Fig. 15 was found in a

workshop some five or six miles from the quarry. Its length is

six and seven-eighths inches and width three and one-eighth

inches. These two specimens are excellent examples of the high-

est art in blade making and represent the average blades from

which large spear points were manufactured. The blades are

made in all sizes, ranging from the large size down to about two

inches in length. From these blades all forms of arrow-points,

spear-points, drills, knives and scrapers were made as needed

by those living in remote places from the quarry.

Not all blank forms of flint brought to the workshops

proved of value for making into blades, as many of the blanks

have more or less obvious defects, some being excessively thick

in some part while others are crooked or defective in general

outline.  Even in a perfect piece of flint, after the form had

increased in tenuity the danger of breakage also increased, as

shown in Fig. 16.   In this figure, the square base form, the

blade was practically complete, when an extra blow with the

hammer rendered the piece worthless. In Fig. 17 is shown the

round-base leaf-shaped broken blade, which was as common as

the square base.  The workshops show many broken blades.

Flint Ridge.                   137

In one workshop, south of the blacksmith shop along the Browns-

ville Road, the writer found upon the surface fifteen broken

blades within a space of five feet by six feet, and I am safe in the

assertion that many hundred broken blades may be found upon

the surface in the workshops surrounding the region of the

blacksmith shop.

In the process of shaping the blades, many eccentric forms

are necessarily developed, due for the most part to defects in

the flint itself or to the non-flakable quality of the flint found

in conjunction with good flakable flint. Many of these forms

are shown in Fig. 18. Specimens are often found showing that

one side has reduced readily and given the proper convex sur-

face, while the other side worked badly, giving a high hump

attempts to remove which usually ended in breaking the piece.

The shaping-tool used in perfecting the leaf-shaped blades

was no doubt the small hammer so abundantly found in the

workshops. Good examples are shown in Nos. 3 and 6 in Fig.

11.

The second industry developed at Flint Ridge was the manu-

facture of cores from which knives were flaked. This industry

was confined for the most part to the workshops south and

southeast of the blacksmith shop. At no other point have many

of the specimens been found, the form being considered rare

when found outside of this region.

The cores are especially prepared flint blocks, so shaped

that long flint knives can be flaked from the core.  The flint

used in making the cores is usually highly colored chalcedony,

many of them showing various tints of blue, red, yellow, green

and purple.

Excellent examples of cores are shown in Fig. 20. No. 1

core is made of lemon-yellow flint with splotches of bright red

at the thick end. No. 2 is made of a purple flint with streaks

of red running through one side.  This core shows knives

chipped from two sides.  No. 3 is a very highly colored core.

The top, as shown in the cut, is a very dark rose with a decisive

change in color to green, and the green shading to yellow. The

knife shown in No. 4 was flaked from this core, fits nicely upon

it and is the first instance of finding the knife and then the

Flint Ridge.                   141

core from which it was flaked. No. 5 is a very dark red, with

a large splotch of green near the center of the piece. No. 6 is

a very delicate shade of yellow with a blending to dark rose.

No. 7 is a light shade of yellow blending into purple with streaks

of very dark red. No. 8 is an unusual blending of the various

shades of green.

Knives flaked from the cores are found in great numbers

in the workshops, especially in those south and east of the

cross-roads at the blacksmith shop.  Good examples of flaked

knives are shown in Fig. 21.  Many of the cores were sub-

jected to the process of flaking off the knives, and were then

discarded, at the workshops; while some of them, we find, were

carried to distant points where they were utilized as needed. We

find the knives in goodly numbers in the old villages and mounds,

and occasionally cores are found; but nowhere in Ohio can

either be found in such numbers as at the workshops of "Flint

Ridge".  The workshop at the end of the Mary Loughman

woods and the workshop directly south of the dwelling on the

Graham farm are both very rich in knives and cores.

The workshop on the Graham place is practically the only

place on the "Ridge" showing a continued habitation.  Broken

pottery, animal bones of many kinds, and other general indica-

tions show a more or less permanent habitation.  This work-

shop has been under cultivation many years and the small deli-

cate knives would naturally get broken, but a careful search

by our survey gave us more than one hundred perfect cores and

scores of blank cores ready for flaking, as well as many hun-

dreds of perfect knives. The industry at this site was not con-

fined to the making of cores and knives, but the making of blades

of the round and square base type was much in evidence, as

more than a hundred broken blades of each type were found.

Occasionally a finished arrow-point was found on the site,

several of which were made of a dark to black flint, the spawls

of which are seldom found in the shop site, indicating that per-

haps these specimens were lost by hunters or received in ex-

change.

In one of the workshops, my assistant, Mr. Shetrone, found

a large piece of hyaline quartz that no doubt came from the

Flint Ridge.                    143

region of the blacksmith shop. From time to time the old vil-

lage sites have shown the use of rock crystal in making arrow-

points, and objects of rock crystal have been found in many of

the mounds of the Hopewell culture.   A large piece of rock

crystal weighing between three and four pounds was found in

the Paint Creek Valley and is now on exhibition in the museum.

Mr. John Wilson found on his farm in Pickaway County a large

piece of rock crystal weighing between twenty and thirty pounds,

and it would not be surprising if in future years when the flint

will likely be quarried for the silica, it will be conclusively

shown that the home of the rock crystal found throughout Ohio

is at Flint Ridge.

DISTRIBUTION.

The wide distribution over Ohio of objects made of flint

is quite apparent to the student of archaeology who has collected

artifacts from the ancient villages, and naturally the distribu-

tion of the flint over the state would be attended with problems

of interest as to the sources of the raw material.  The raw

material from any of the quarries in the state where flakable

flint was obtained might be transported a long distance if made

into convenient form. The distribution of flint from the great

Flint Ridge quarries was doubtless on a large scale through

barter or exchange, or by bands of aborigines coming to the

quarries to secure the raw material for their own use.  In this

case the flint was made into blades or cores and carried away

to be specialized, finished and used.

In a number of old village sites caches of flint blades, still

retaining the crude edges and points just as they came from the

roughing-out shops at the quarries, have been found.  These

caches are of great interest as they represent the storage places

of surplus supplies to be drawn upon as required.

The exploration of mounds often reveals quantities of

blades placed with the dead, perhaps the personal property of

the deceased.  The blades are not always found in caches as

many occur in the village site, and frequently upon the surface,

miles distant from a village site.

144      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

MANNER OF DISTRIBUTION.

Flint Ridge at an early date could only be reached by trails,

and here the trails would end. The largest stream near enough

for the use of boats was the Licking River, six miles north from

the principal quarries.  In Muskingum  County the Licking

River was only a few miles away, and the Muskingum River

less than six miles distant and doubtless these streams were

used to transport the blades and cores to eastern Ohio, north

and south, and perhaps the Licking River furnished a route to

the west as far as Newark and vicinity when the water was

of sufficient volume to permit the use of small boats. Directly

to the south, west and north the flint was carried long distances

over trails in these directions. Practically all the objects made

of flint found upon the surface in central Ohio came from Flint

Ridge and practically all of the raw material was carried over

the trails to the old villages and there specialized into arrow and

spear-points, knives, scrapers, saws and drills.

RESUME.

A brief resume of quarrying the raw material from which

such a large number of implements were manufactured will be

of special interest and the following outstanding features, it is

believed, will add materially to the fund of information con-

cerning the quarrying of the flint at Flint Ridge.

The flint was quarried by the use of stone mauls and ham-

mers (none of which were hafted) together with wedges made

of wood or horn (although no wedges of any kind were found)

and pries made of wood.

No evidence showing the use of fire in quarrying was found

in the thirty-three quarry-sites examined and I firmly believe

fire was not used as an agent in quarrying the flint, directly or

indirectly, as some evidence would have been found in this

great number of quarry-sites.

The flint was removed from the quarry sometimes only a

short distance away, where it was blocked out and then taken

to the workshops, usually in close proximity, where the blocked-

146      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

out pieces were made into blades or cores, the two principal com-

modities manufactured at the quarries.

It is very fortunate for those who wish to verify or dis-

prove the statements made in this study of Flint Ridge that the

full range of quarrying is still well within the reach of all in-

vestigators and needs only to be properly examined to reveal

the facts.

The most striking thing that presented itself was that a

primitive people with such crude implements showed such skill

and perseverance in quarrying the flint from its bed and then

displayed such versatility in fashioning the raw material into

blades and cores ready to transport by man-power to practically

every portion of the state.

THE QUESTION OF OWNERSHIP OF THE FLINT RIDGE QUARRIES.

Were the quarry sites owned by individual cultures or were

the quarries common property among the tribes?  In the region

of the blacksmith shop at the cross-roads, where the flint was

quarried, and in the region of Boyer's in Muskingum County,

there is nothing to indicate that the sites of these quarries were

guarded by certain tribes or cultures.  Had the quarries been

defended against an attack, we surely would have some evidence

of attack in the way of lost arrow-points and other stone ar-

ticles of warfare; on the contrary, specimens of arrow and

spear-points are but seldom found.  Only one place upon the

"Ridge" shows a more or less permanent abode, the site being

on the western end of the ridge, one and a half miles west of the

blacksmith shop.  Here, on the farm of William Hazlett, is a

mound surrounded by a wall made up of blocks of flint. This

mound we examined to ascertain the culture responsible for its

construction.

THE HAZLETT MOUND.

The Hazlett mound is located on the farm of William Haz-

lett, situated in the western edge of Hopewell Township, Lick-

ing County, and approximately one and one-half miles west of

the blacksmith shop. Near the site of the mound the flint ledge

outcrops in very large boulder-like pieces of flint. During the

Flint Ridge.                   147

early settlement of Ohio the people made use of large pieces

in the manufacture of buhrs for grinding grain. Large quanti-

ties of small pieces of flint, the result of forming the buhr-stones,

are scattered over the ground in great profusion as are also

partly finished buhrs.  Broken pieces of flint of large size are

found scattered over this part of the ridge in great profusion

and these pieces were used in the mound and also to aid in

constructing a wall of stone surrounding the mound.  The

dimensions of the mound before work was begun were: north

and south diameter, eighty-five feet; east and west diameter,

ninety feet; height thirteen feet three inches, and the general

shape that of a flattened cone. The mound was covered with a

dense growth of underbrush which was removed and burned.

A photograph of the mound is shown in Fig. 23. The depres-

sion shown in the top of the mound filled with limbs and un-

derbrush is the excavation of a former explorer. The work of

examining the mound was begun on the east side, as shown in

the photograph, Fig. 23, where the workman's head appears

above the corn.

COMPOSITION OF THE MOUND.

The mound was made of earth gathered from the sur-

rounding surface, and perfectly devoid of pieces of rock which

would naturally occur upon the surface, except in a number of

instances where small pockets of flint knives or scrapers or even

select pieces of flint were placed. The soil was very loose and

the examination was conducted with dispatch.

A HOUSE OF FLINT.

It was discovered after the work had progressed to the

point of finding a long wall of flat blocks, and subsequently of

four such walls, that the mound covered the remains of a flint

house, the inside measurement of which was practically sixteen

feet by sixteen feet eight inches, and the outside measurements

thirty-seven feet by thirty-seven feet six inches.

The walls on the inside of the building were perpendicular

and averaged six feet in height, gradually sloping to the ground

on the outside and on the inside forming a right angle with a

Flint Ridge.                   149

base of practically ten feet. On the inside of the building upon

the floor were found two skeletons, one placed near the south

wall, which was undisturbed, and one near the northwest corner

that had been disturbed by a former explorer who was satisfied

with the artifacts found with the burial, and left the greater

part of the skeleton in a pile at one side of the trench.

DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE STONE STRUCTURE.

The space covered by the mound outside of the stone struc-

ture containing nothing of interest, only two small post holes

being found, lying directly west of the structure but apparently

having no connection therewith.  The examination was begun

on the east side of the mound and the beginning of the wall was

struck just twenty-four feet from the starting point. This wall

measured thirty-four feet in length, and is shown in Fig. 24.

The blocks of flint used in constructing this wall were all small,

only a few exceeding a cubic foot in size. These larger blocks

are shown in Fig. 24, at the distant end of the cut and placed

on the floor; they required two men to handle. The wall for the

most part was made of small blocks of flint promiscuously placed

on the outside, but so laid on the inside as to form a perpen-

dicular wall six feet high, laid up without mortar.  At the

southeast corner a doorway was formed by the same manner

of laying the stone. The doorway was one foot and ten inches

on the bottom and about two feet at the top. Fig. 25 shows the

doorway in this building also the south side wall and the angular

turn in the wall forming the room.  This cut does not show

the full wall to advantage, as a slide caused by the heavy rains

upon the freshly removed earth covered the greater portion of

the wall exposed to the base, and it was found that the removal

of wet freshly turned earth was not feasible, if not almost im-

possible, at the time; but cut No. 25 shows very well the out-

line of the walls of the building. The inside measurements of

the room after the earth was entirely removed were sixteen

feet east and west, as shown in Fig. 25, and sixteen feet

eight inches north and south.  The broken flint shown in the

main body of the mound in Fig. 25 was taken from the wall

152      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

of the building on the opposite side by a former explorer, and

then thrown back when the excavation was filled.  The soil

was removed from the room, leaving it exposed as it appeared

when the burials were placed on the floor and prior to heaping

the mound over the building.  The burials are shown in Fig.

26. The perfect skeleton placed along the west wall had not

been disturbed by former explorers and was removed in very

good condition.  Fig. 27 shows the skeleton as it was un-

covered. The body had been placed upon a prepared floor and

under the head lay a large copper gorget of unusual size, made

in the form of a conventional cross. The size of the gorget is

eight inches long by six inches wide, and is considered as belong-

ing to the Hopewell Culture. One of the fingers of the gorget

may be seen extending from beneath the skull.  An ear orna-

ment of copper lies near the right cheek bone and another simi-

larly located on the other side is not visible in the cut. Around

the neck was a string of beads made of shell and on the right

arm an object made of wood, covered with copper. In the left

hand was an ornament made of the anterior half of the lower

jaw of a gray wolf.

The part of a skeleton shown near the north wall of the

structure had been disturbed by former explorers, who cut a

trench six feet wide into the mound from the northeast, and

when they came to the center carried the shaft to the base of

the mound, where the great central fireplace was located, prac-

tically in the center of the room. The fireplace certainly was in

use a very long time as indicated by the burned earth.  How-

ever, nothing definite could be obtained as to its size, as the

charred wood and ashes were thoroughly mixed with the earth.

I am inclined to believe the parts of the skeleton found near

the north wall were left in the place where it was found and the

skull and a few other parts removed.  No artifacts were left

with the skeleton but it is generally understood that a number

of objects were found.

The house was evidently supplied with a roof, as post-holes

were found at the corners, as shown in Fig. 28.  At the far

corner in the cut, a stake about four feet high is placed in the

156      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

post mold. At other places in the room post molds were found

and no doubt served as supports for the roof.

DESCRIPTION OF ARTIFACTS FOUND WITH THE BURIAL.

The copper gorget is of unusual weight and size, being eight

inches in length and six inches in width. The gorget was covered

with a woven fabric, part of which still clings to the copper.

The gorget is shown in Fig. 30.  This type of gorget has been

attributed to the Hopewell culture in Ohio. A number of these

specimens made of both copper and stone were taken from the

Tremper Mound in Scioto County and several were found in the

Fort Ancient find of copper objects, all of which are on exhibi-

tion in the museum of the Society.  The gorget was found

directly under the skull of the skeleton.

The ear ornaments shown in Fig. 31 are of special interest

as they are made a little different from the usual type found in

the Hopewell culture, consisting of two similar concavo-convex

plates connected by central cylindrical columns.  Those shown

in Fig. 31 were made similar to the majority of the ear orna-

ments of the Hopewell culture with the exception that one con-

cavo-convex plate was replaced by a round and flat plate and

smaller in diameter by half an inch.

The concavo-convex ear ornament is perhaps the most com-

mon ornament made of copper used by primitive man, and no

doubt required great skill to manufacture.

WOVEN FABRIC.

The example of woven fabric shown in Fig. 31 was pre-

served by the salts of copper. A coarse cloth had been placed

over a matting on the floor of the grave. The matting was made

of bark, very coarsely woven, while only a few pieces of the

cloth were preserved sufficiently to photograph.

The wood handle covered with copper, as shown in Fig.

31, is also of interest. The blade was apparently made of wood

and was a continuation of the handle, which was preserved by

copper.

Flint Ridge.                    161

The other ornaments found in the grave were a necklace

of shell beads made from the columella of some ocean shell, and

numbered twenty-three well made beads. The necklace is shown

in Fig. 32.

In the left hand of the skeleton was placed an ornament

made of the anterior part of the lower jaw of the gray wolf.

The cut jaw is shown in Fig. 32.   When in use as an orna-

ment no doubt the two halves of the jaw were together.

RESUME.

The examination of the Hazlett Mound has established the

fact that the Hopewell culture in Ohio constructed the mound,

and proves beyond doubt that this culture resorted to Flint

Ridge for the raw material for the manufacture of many of

their artifacts and further that they had established themselves

upon the ridge and in close proximity to the good flint quarries.

No evidence is forthcoming as to the length of time the site was

used.  It may have been the refuge of the Hopewell culture

from time to time as they would come to the Ridge for their

supplies of the raw material.  I fully expected to find some

evidence that this building covered by the mound was used as a

storehouse for blades and cores, for here a formidable defense

could have been staged, behind stone walls of unusual size and

height, against great odds if it became necessary to do so.

I do not feel that this fortified site, one and one-half miles

from the great central quarries, was intended to guard any part

of the quarries. I do feel certain, however, that such a fortified

place so near to the source of supply served to guard the raw

material after it had been manufactured into blades and cores,

but no evidence that it was used for this purpose was found.

Vol. XXX --11,