Science and Democracy:
A History of the Cincinnati
Observatory, 1842-1872
by Stephen Goldfarb
The Spy Glass out on the hill
Is
now entirely finished.
The distance twixt us and the moon
Is sensibly diminished.
When Mitchel looks, it comes near
He sees the hills and trees
Which most conclusively doth prove
That 'tis not made of cheese.
--Cincinnati Enquirer, 18451
The Cincinnati Observatory, housing an
eleven-and-one-half-inch refractor
telescope, was opened for viewing in the
spring of 1845. The circumstances
by which the observatory came to be
built constitute an exemplary story
of science and democracy in the middle
decades of the nineteenth century,
as are also the efforts, and ultimate
failure, to make it become an important
research institution. Justification for
the observatory from its inception in
1842 was found in a curious blend of
localism, nationalism, and a belief
in democracy and the progress of man.
The monies for the telescope and
construction of the observatory were
raised by public subscription, making
this the
first astronomical institution of its size to
be built without either
royal or governmental patronage. As a
symbol of civic pride, the observatory
was viewed as an outstanding achievement
by a city freshly cut from the
wilderness. John P. Foote, who served
both as secretary and president of
the Cincinnati Astronomical Society,
expressed this sentiment later in 1855
when he wrote: "We [the citizens of
Cincinnati] gave an example to the
old and wealthy which they ought to have
given to us, who were young
and poor. . . . Cambridge and Washington
have now larger telescopes than
that of Cincinnati, which at the time it
was mounted, was the largest in
America. . . ."2
The observatory also was built as a
symbol of the intellectual ambition
of the young country. In 1842 when the
project was conceived, this nation-
NOTES ON PAGE 222
THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY 173
alistic spirit was well expressed by its
foremost proponent, Ormsby Mac-
Knight Mitchel, when he told an audience
that he was "determined to
show the autocrat of all the Russias
that an obscure individual in this
wilderness city in a republican country
can raise here more money by volun-
tary gift in behalf of science than his
majesty can raise in the same way
throughout his whole dominions."3 Along
with this nationalistic feeling
came a very self-conscious belief in the
newly won democracy. Mitchel often
boasted that he was "the
first democratically elected astronomer" in that the
constitution of the society required the
post of director of the observatory,
like all the offices in the society, to
be elective. One of the major purposes of
establishing the observatory was the
increase of general knowledge and the
resultant uplifting of the educational
level. For Mitchel, from the knowledge
of astronomy came proof of the existence
of God. Throughout all his
lectures and popular writings there was
constant reference to the beauties
of the heavens reflecting the glory of
God.4 As astronomical discoveries
were made, man was freed from older superstitions,
thus advancing the
progress of mankind.
The main force behind the establishment
of the Cincinnati Observatory
was its first director, O. M. Mitchel.
Though born in Kentucky, Mitchel
was reared in the Ohio towns of Lebanon
and Xenia and received a college
education at West Point. After
graduating in 1829, he became an assistant
professor of mathematics there but
resigned his commission in 1831 after
a brief tour of duty in Florida and
moved to the then largest city in the
West, Cincinnati. Mitchel practiced law
for a few years before teaching
in Cincinnati College, an institution
which had been founded in 1819 and
reestablished in 1835. He was made
Professor of Mathematics, Natural
Philosophy and Astronomy and was able to
supplement his income during
the summer months as chief engineer of
the Little Miami Railroad.5
Because his teaching aroused some
interest in Cincinnati, Mitchel was
invited to give a lecture in the winter
of 1841-42 to the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The
subject he selected was "The Stability
of the Solar System," and his
lecture was well received by both the audience
and the press. As a result of his
success, Mitchel consented to give a series
of lectures for the society.6
The reception of these lectures must
have been very gratifying to Mitchel
for, "On the first evening,"
he later wrote, "my audience was respectable,
on the second evening my house was
filled, and on the third it was over-
flowing."7 Mitchel gave his last
lecture of the series near the end of April
1842, at which time he suggested
that the citizens of Cincinnati purchase
a telescope. "I have resolved to
raise seven thousand five hundred dollars,"
he explained, "and my plan is . . .
. [to] Divide the entire sum into three
hundred shares of stock, each share
being valued at twenty-five dollars."
He further explained that the ownership
of a share made one a member
of the Cincinnati Astronomical Society,
which entitled him to "the privilege
of examining these beautiful and magnificent
objects through one of the
finest glasses in the world."8
During the next few weeks, Mitchel, when
not busy with his duties at Cincinnati College, visited individuals of "all classes" soliciting money for the telescope. About twelve hundred persons had to be approached in order to sell the three hundred shares, for most of the stockholders subscribed to but a single share.9 The Cincinnati Astronomical Society was organized to support the activi- ties of the proposed observatory in late May 1842, and by early June the full amount had been subscribed. The society wanted Mitchel to travel to Europe to procure the proper telescope and to become acquainted with European astronomers and observatories. An additional $1000 was raised for his personal expenses, and $7500 was subscribed for purchase of a telescope.10 Mitchel's journey lasted well over three months, during which time he visited the optical shops of both London and Paris, but he finally had to go to Munich to obtain an "object-glass" that would meet the demands of the society. At Merz and Mahler Mitchel made a conditional purchase of an |
THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY 175
eleven-and-one-half-inch retractor much
like, but slightly smaller than, the
one in use at the Imperial Russian
Observatory at Pulkowa, the largest
refractor then extant.11
While in Europe, Mitchel met some
important scientists of the day in-
cluding Francois Arago in Paris, Richard
Sheepshankes, Sir James South,
and the Astronomer Royal G. B. Airy in
England. Mitchel worked as an as-
sistant to Airy at Greenwich for two
weeks to learn the techniques of
observational astronomy--until then he
had had no experience with the
practical side of the use of a large
telescope. Mitchel's mathematical ability
must have served him well, but it seems
extraordinary that he felt confident
enough to contract for a telescope which
he did not know how to operate
properly.12
Mitchel returned to Cincinnati in the
early part of October, and on
the 14th "an unusually large
audience" heard him report on his European
journey. After another brief flurry of
solicitation, money from new
memberships and some large donations
increased the funds available to
the society to $14,000. With this sum available, the society decided
to
finalize the purchase of the telescope
from Merz and Mahler at a
cost in excess of $9000.13
The instrument took over a year to be constructed
and shipped to Cincinnati, during which
time an observatory had to be
built and furnished. The problem of a
site was quickly solved by Nicholas
Longworth's generous donation of four
acres of land on a hill in eastern
Cincinnati.14
In 1844 prestige of the society rose
still higher when John Quincy Adams
was persuaded to speak at the
observatory's cornerstone-laying ceremony
on November 9. In honor of the speaker,
who gave a two-hour oration,
the name of the hill on which the
observatory would stand was changed
to Mount Adams.15
The construction of the observatory,
delayed by cold weather, was a
very trying experience for Mitchel.
Constant lack of money dogged the
project from the beginning; when not
actually lecturing, Mitchel was
either supervising the work or raising
funds for the workmen's pay. Many
of the materials and much of the work
done on the building were donated
in exchange for shares in the society,
and this accounted for much of the
increase in membership from the original
three hundred to the eight
hundred about which Mitchel often
boasted. In spite of the large amount
of free labor and materials, Mitchel
incurred considerable personal debt
in order to complete the observatory.16
The telescope arrived in Cincinnati in
January 1845, and by the time
of the society's annual meeting in April
it was mounted and in good work-
ing order. The annual address to the
society was given by Mitchel's former
law partner, E. D. Mansfield, who
praised the study of astronomy for its
practical uses as well as its value in
the education of the general public.
The report of the board of control
overflowed with the satisfaction of
having finished an important
undertaking, while Mitchel's report as director
was filled with a detailed explanation
of the problems of mounting the
176 OHIO HISTORY
telescope and a brief description of the
first observations made with the
large refractor.17
During most of its life the society had
financial problems which, more
than any other single matter, were the
continual concern of the board
of control. The society was plagued with
periodic crises during which the
officers and members in a burst of
activity would attempt to raise needed
funds. The first of the financial crises
occurred in 1845 when Mitchel
informed the society that he had
assumed over $3000 of the cost of erecting
the observatory building; in addition,
the society itself was in debt about
four hundred dollars. The need to
liquidate this debt was the major con-
cern during the winter of 1845-46. It
was decided to ask each member
for an additional five dollars, and
notices to this effect were sent out.
By April 28, 1846, the committee on
subscriptions was able to report "that
more than $4000 has been
subscribed" which was sufficient to pay all the
debts.18
The next financial crisis occurred in
the following year when Mitchel
announced to the board of control that
"the additional instruments required
for the observatory were still wanting
and that the building was still
unfurnished." A committee which
reported on the needs estimated that an
additional $3200 was necessary. The
figure was broken down in this
way: transit circle, $2000; clock, $300;
room for transit circle, $400; and
$500 to finish the observatory
building.19 The fund-raising efforts of the
society on this occasion were not so
successful as before, though the situa-
tion was much improved by the loan to
the society of a transit circle by
Alexander Bache of the Coast Survey.20
The observatory building was
finally finished, and the addition for
the transit circle was built, but
Mitchel had to wait until the summer of
1849 before the financial resources
for a proper chronometer could be found.
The society's financial problems,
however, were never really solved. By
spring 1850, some further debts had
accumulated, and the need for a
regular salary for Mitchel's assistant
was also reported. After rejecting a
motion to disband the society, members again
were able to raise additional
funds by selling stock and soliciting
large grants from wealthy individuals.21
By June 20, $2000 had been raised for
the liquidation of debts, and $1000
a year for the next three years had been
subscribed to pay for operating
expenses; the largest single item was
$600 for the assistant's salary.22
As originally conceived, the purpose of
the observatory was two-fold:
first, the amusement and education of
the citizens of Cincinnati, and second,
scientific research.23 When the telescope was
first erected, the equatorial
room was open to members of the society
from 3 P. M. to 10 P. M.
every
day of the week except Sundays and
Mondays.24 No doubt because he
was unable to carry out his own
scientific observations, Mitchel was able
to prevail upon the society to change
the original visiting days. Beginning
on November 1, 1846, the telescope was
available for viewing by the mem-
bers on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays
only.25
In March 1852, Mitchel asked that the
observatory be closed to the
THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY 177 public and that the instruments be used exclusively for "scientific purposes," for which he felt a transit, instead of an equatorial, mount would better serve his needs. This he realized "would require the consent of the stock- holders" who would have to "relinquish a considerable portion of their rights in favour of the advancement of science."26 The question of exclusive use of the observatory for science languished for two years, but in the early months of 1854 the society yielded to Mitchel's wishes. With the observatory closed to the public, Mitchel was finally free to carry out his observations without having to be bothered by visitors.27 Except for a single meeting in 1855, the minute book of the society records no meetings between the election meeting held in June 1854 and a series of meetings held in 1859. The problem before the society during these 1859 meetings was the removal of the observatory from Mount Adams where, as Mitchel explained, "the smoke issuing from the chimneys of the surrounding factories had the last two or three years become so great as to preclude for more than half the time any observations." At the same meeting Mitchel announced that he had accepted an offer to become the director of the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York.28 Two offers of suitable sites and financial aid were received by the society, but because the members could not come to any agreement with Long- worth over disposal of the Mount Adams land, the observatory remained at its almost useless location. In 1860 Mitchel went to Albany, though he still retained the directorship of the Cincinnati Observatory, leaving his assistant Henry Twitchell in charge. When the Civil War broke out, Mitchel was quickly made an officer in the Union Army, no doubt because of his West Point training. After successful campaigns in Tennessee and |
178 OHIO HISTORY
Alabama, he died of yellow fever in the
fall of 1862 at Beaufort, South
Carolina.29
After Mitchel's death, the observatory
entered a period of even greater
inactivity. Twitchell, a former sailor,
soon resigned, transferring responsi-
bility to a Mr. Davis who was permitted
to use the telescope and to live
in the observatory on the condition that
he maintain the building.30
In 1867 a revival of interest in the
observatory took place. Alphonso Taft,
later to become Secretary of War in the
Grant administration, was then the
prominent new president of the
Cincinnati Astronomical Society. Money
was raised, and a plan was worked out
whereby an operating budget was
provided for three years. After support
was assured, Cleveland Abbe, who
had just spent two years with Otto
Wilhelm von Struve in Russia, was
elected to the directorship. Abbe
assumed his post in June 1868, but instead
of pursuing astronomical interests, he
began to work on weather predic-
tions with the aid of meteorological
data collected by telegraphed reports.31
The problem of the site was still not
solved. It was evident that the
telescope was useless on Mount Adams,
for the early smoke problem had
become even worse. In 1872 the
observatory became part of the University
of Cincinnati, and through a generous
gift of financier John Kilgour the
observatory was moved to its present
location on Mount Lookout. The
society as a private body then ceased to
exist.32
In the story of the Cincinnati
Observatory some of the problems of
American science in the middle decades
of the nineteenth century appear in
microcosm. The rhetoric of democratic
enthusiasm which assumed that
correct motivations could be substituted
for special training justified the
large expense of the telescope and
observatory for the essentially esoteric
activity of astronomical research. In
the long run, though, the rationaliza-
tions of popular amusement, social
usefulness, and Christain edification
were not enough to sustain the
observatory.
There is indeed something touching and
absurd about the whole observa-
tory scheme. On one hand, there is the
magnificence of the telescope, and,
on the other, the failure of Mitchel to
use this superb instrument for any
important scientific work. Over four
years passed between the time the
society received the telescope and that
when the observatory was equipped
with supporting instruments. One wonders
whether the membership of the
society or even Mitchel envisioned the
full ramifications of their decision
to build the observatory. Mitchel's own
development from the enthusiastic
amateur of 1842, affirming the
importance of the study of astronomy for
the benefit of mankind, to the
professional of 1852, who wanted exclusive
use of the telescope for scientific
purposes, parallels the currents of emergent
professionalization then prevalent in
America. The history of the Cincinnati
Astronomical Society clearly exhibits
the problem of reconciling the aims
of science with the popular goals of
democracy.
THE AUTHOR: Stephen Goldfarb is a
doctoral candidate in the history of
science
and technology program, Case Western
Reserve University.