Ohio History Journal

EXPLORATIONS OF THE WESTENHAVER MOUND.

BY WILLIAM C. MILLS.

The Westenhaver Mound is located in Wayne township,

Pickaway county, Ohio, on the west bank of the Scioto river.

The land on which the mound is situated is owned by Mr. and

Mrs. George E. Roth, and lies about six miles southwest of Cir-

cleville and three miles north of the village of Yellow Bud.

The site of the earthwork is a level plateau, comprising the

first bottom of the Scioto river, which at this point is elevated

almost fifty feet above low-water mark of that stream. The

river, which is distant only a few hundred feet from the site of

the mound, encroaches so closely upon the terrace forming the

first level above its bed, that barely enough room existed for

the construction of the Ohio canal, the natural waterway being

separated from the artificial one only by a narrow towpath.

The land comprising this first bottom is typical of this rich

section of the Scioto valley, being principally a clayey loam, from

two feet to ten feet deep, overlying deposits of gravel.

HISTORICAL DATA CONCERNING THE MOUND.

The Westenhaver Mound takes its name from a former

owner of the farm, who more than a quarter of a century ago

made a partial examination of it. At that time, the idea pre-

vailed generally that burials within mounds were to be found at

the center on the base line. Consequently workmen sunk a shaft

with the idea of exposing that portion of the base, and in this

instance their expectations were justified, as perhaps the most

interesting burial in the structure was uncovered.

This burial, the principal one of the mound, occupied a

specially constructed grave, and was remarkable for the great

amount of woven fabric accompanying it. Fortunately, parts of

the skeleton remained in the grave, which we were able to ex-

amine with some satisfaction. The interment is more fully de-

scribed under the head of burials contained in the mound.

(227)

228       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

The results of Mr. Westenhaver's examination were pub-

lished in a local newspaper, but in the absence of the published

account or of any person having exact knowledge in the matter,

it is not known definitely what, besides the cloth, was removed

from the grave. It is believed however, that ornaments or im-

plements must have accompanied so important a burial, and this

belief is strengthened by the finding of a copper bracelet in the

earth near the top of the mound which evidently had been thrown

out of the shaft at the time of Mr. Westenhaver's examination.

This bracelet is typical of the culture, round in cross-section, and

about two and three-fourths inches across. Although copper is

to be expected in mounds of this culture, the bracelet is the only

specimen of the metal found.

The fabric found with this burial perhaps comprised the

largest and best preserved exhibit of cloth ever taken from an

Ohio mound. The entire lot later was secured from Mr. Westen-

haver by a collector residing in Dayton, and upon his death was

sold, partly to Dayton collectors and partly at auction by a Bos-

ton firm. Through the generosity of Mr. McMurray, of Day-

ton, a fine specimen of the cloth is now in the Museum of the

Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society.

THE MOUND, EXTERNALLY.

At the time of the present examination of the Westenhaver

Mound, the site was a cultivated field, and although farmed for

many years, the mound itself had never been plowed nor cleared

of trees, owing to its abrupt contour. On the west and south

sides, it was covered with trees and grass, while on the east and

north, a tangle of trees, vines and undergrowth completely

covered the surface. The trees covering the structure were

seventeen in number, consisting of white oak, red oak, black wal-

nut, and hickory, and ranged from a few inches to one of two

feet in diameter. Their removal necessitated considerable labor,

and the roots, penetrating every portion of the mound, were a

source of hindrance throughout its examination.

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.      229

SURVEY OF THE MOUND.

On June 18, 1915, preliminary to the examination of the

earthwork, Mr. C. A. Campbell began a survey for a topographi-

cal map, shown as Fig. 1. The maximum height of the mound,

as shown by this survey, is 16 feet, while its base, which is

elliptical in outline, is 110 feet along its north and south axis, 90

feet along the east and west axis, and its perimeter approximately

320 feet. The solid content of the structure was found to be

about 1900 cubic yards.

After completing the field work necessary for compiling the

topographic map, Mr. Campbell established secondary traverse

points on and adjacent to the mound, and from these by the aid

of the instrument located the burials as they were uncovered.

The map, prepared from his notes, is shown as Fig. 2, and illus-

trates a cross-section of the mound.

THE WORK OF EXCAVATION.

The actual examination of the mound was begun June 21,

1915 and required the greater part of three weeks, and the labor

of ten men to complete it. Excavation was begun at the south-

east side at the base line, a cut being extended fifty feet to the

south and then an equal distance to the north.

It was found that the mound was constructed mainly from

the surface soil immediately surrounding the site, as shown by

the topographical map. Within the body of the mound were oc-

casional pockets of gravel, while near the base piles of clay and

gravel indicated a sub-base burial.

The examination of the mound was greatly retarded by

frequent rains which filled the cuts, necessitating much time and

labor to place them in condition to proceed with the work.

Again, the mound from top to base was literally honeycombed

with burrows of the groundhog. These burrows carried surface

water into the interior of the mound, resulting in damage and

deterioration to burials, and as the season was extremely rainy,

many places within the structure were in such condition that

critical examination was very difficult.

232      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

FEATURES OF INTEREST.

A number of interesting features characterized the examina-

tion of the Westenhaver Mound, several of them never before

having been noted in the Ohio mounds. Chief of these features

were the pathological flattening and mineralizing, accompanied

by partial mummification of the bones and flesh of two burials;

the very bold and distinct marks of the digging stick in the

tough clay walls of the principal sub-base grave; and the use of

logs and brush to supplement earth, in building up the body of

the mound.

This latter condition was observed principally at the south

side of the mound, where the imprints of trees varying in dia-

meter from five inches to two feet showed that the site at that

point had not even been cleared in preparation for the erection

of the mound. Other mounds examined have shown the use of

logs and brush in leveling the site and in filling in low places in

preparation thereof, later being covered with earth to produce

a uniform base, but in this instance, the south side of the site was

naturally highest, and the logs had been used in lieu of earth in

the construction of the work.

A total of fifteen burials were located in the mound. Three

of these were on the base line, four below the base, and eight

were scattered promiscuously through the body of the mound.

The original burial probably was one found near the center of

the mound, in a dug grave four feet below the base line. Prac-

tically all the artifacts found accompanied this burial. The only

burial placed directly on the base line having a well prepared

grave, was that uncovered by Mr. Westenhaver near the center

of the structure. The burials scattered throughout the mound

showed many interesting examples of reburial, individual bones

often being missing, and those present occupying positions for-

eign to the skeleton as a whole. Aside from these secondary

burials, the usual position of the skeletons was at full length,

upon the back.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BURIALS.

The first burials found were near the north side of the

mound, and are shown in Fig. 3. In an unusually large grave,

234      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

seven feet six inches long, five feet wide, and extending four

feet below the base line, had been buried three bodies, two adult

males, and a child, from seven to ten years old.

The adults had been placed in the grave at full length,

arms extended close to the body, while the child lay in a flexed

position, on the right side. The heads of all three were toward

the east. No implements or ornaments were with the bodies,

but within the grave above them were found four well-wrought

flint arrowpoints, which apparently, together with their shafts,

had been placed there intentionally at the time of burial.

Burial No. 4, the remains of an adolescent, was found on

the east side of the mound, about ten feet below the top. The

skeleton had been disarranged by groundhogs, parts of it being

found some distance away within their burrows. The skull

however, was fairly preserved, and was removed intact.

Burial No. 5, corresponds to the one exhumed by Mr.

Westenhaver previously referred to. This burial was the most

interesting of the entire mound, owing to the great amount of

woven fabric accompanying it, and to the fact that it occupied

a well prepared sepulchre made of logs. Sufficient of the burial

remained undisturbed to afford a fairly definite idea of its

original condition. The north end of the grave had not been

destroyed, and the bones of the feet and a quantity of the

charred cloth accompanying the body were undisturbed.  The

cloth is shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

Also a number of ornaments made of bone and teeth were

left in the grave. The most interesting of these was an orna-

ment made of the end of the lower jaw of the black bear which

includes the incisors and the canines of a young animal as shown

by the hollow canines. Also a number of cut incisors of the

beaver which had the appearance of forming a part of a necklace.

The specimens are shown in Fig. 6.

It developed in examination that Mr. Westenhaver's shaft

had pierced the grave at the south end, or at the head, and

that the shaft had been enlarged at the bottom to permit of

the removal of the skeleton and its accompanying objects. The

deduction therefore is that the burial was similar to many others

characteristic of the early Hopewell culture; that it had been

238       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

lay to the south about six inches higher than the remainder of

the skeleton. With the exception of the skull and feet, all bones

of the body were peculiarly and strikingly flattened, with in-

durated muscular tissue attached to them, giving a general im-

pression of having been subjected to great pressure. The bones

of the lower leg were stained with a small amount of red ochre,

the only burial showing this condition.

Indications of the ceremony of the sacred fire were unmis-

takable in this instance, and the idea presents itself that the

flattening of the bones may be the result of this proceeding, in

part at least. It might be possible that at a certain stage of

the ceremony, when heat had placed the skeletal parts in a

favorable condition, that the heaping over them of the heavy

earth covering would inaugurate such a change or flattening,

the process being furthered by the weight of the incumbent

earth and subsequent trampling above the burial. Again, the

idea of a primary scaffold burial, presents itself as possibly

explaining the preservation of the muscular tissue. Provided

the season of the year and the atmospheric conditions were

favorable, the muscular substance would become dry and hard,

and thus be preserved; or the submitting of the body to the

action of smoke while on the scaffold, as an intentional means

of preserving the flesh, may not be unworthy of consideration.

In either event, of course, secondary disposition of the body in

the mound followed.

However, feeling the desirability of expert opinion in the

matter, portions of the skeleton, together with parts of that

from burial No. 7, found nearby and exhibiting a similar condi-

tion, were submitted for expert anatomical examination and

report to Dr. T. Wingate Todd, of the Western Reserve Uni-

versity Medical School, Cleveland. The rarity of such condi-

tions in skeletal remains in the Ohio mounds and the evident

interest attaching thereto, seem to warrant full consideration

of the subject. Dr. Todd's exhaustive report follows:

"The bones sent for examination prove to belong to two

different skeletons, both of which have suffered considerable

post-mortem deformation and are almost entirely mineralized.

Of skeleton A there are a portion of the dorsal vertebral column,

240       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

the right clavicle and humerus, the upper seven right ribs, the

right fibula, the left femur, patella, tibia and fibula. Of skeleton

B there are only the right tibia and fibula. The tibia and fibula

of skeleton A are still encrusted with a considerable amount of

earth and crystalline material, which is present on the other

limb bones in much less amount and indeed is absent from the

bones of skeleton B. Portions of the scalene muscles remain

attached to the first rib and remnants of the intercostals can be

seen between the others. Vegetable fibres are still to be found

embedded in the bones or incrustation together with ochre and

wood ashes. All of these will be discussed in the appropriate

place.

"In the consideration of such bones many questions pre-

sent themselves. Were the bones crushed through external in-

fluence alone, or did some pathological condition of the skeletons

themselves form the main or even an accessory factor in the

deformation? May they be part of the skeletons of pregnant

women which have undergone pathological softening during life?

Are they merely the bones of senile or stout individuals which

would resist less than usual the pressure of the soil above them?

In what way has it come about that actual muscle has been

preserved? Have there been attempts at post-mortem preserva-

tion? Of what nature are the vegetable fibres and how did

thy come to be there? Are the ochreous and other stains on

the bones evidence of mutilation before burial? Do the ashes

signify cremation?

"Let us consider first the bones themselves and their de-

formation. Fig. 8 is a photograph of the bones of skeleton A.

All except the vertebral column and the fragment showing

clavicle and first rib are placed naturally with their distal ex-

tremities below. The portion of vertebral column however, is

inverted, the narrower end being the uppermost, and the clavicle

is so placed that its lateral extremity points upward and toward

the right.

"The fragment of vertebral column consists of eight

vertebrae from the dorsal series together with adjacent parts

of several ribs. On careful examination of the reverse aspect

portions of the spines can be seen embedded among charred

242       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

remnants of muscular tissue. The vertebrae are so crushed that

on an average the ventral and dorsal surfaces are separated by

only 6 mm. The dorsal aspect of the fragment is slightly con-

cave and exhibits impressions indicating that the column has

been flattened out upon some resistant material of irregular sur-

face part of the superficial layer of which now adheres to the

bones. There is no spondylitis. The bones can be identified with

fair accuracy for the lowest has rib lying in contact with it, and

in spite of the compression it can easily be recognized that the

uppermost vertebral body is the smallest. It is unlikely then

that this is higher than the fourth dorsal. Estimating on this

basis, there are the 4th, to the 11th, dorsal vertebrae inclusive

together with the heads of the 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th ribs on

the left side and the ₉th, 10th and 11th ribs on the right. If the

higher vertebra be estimated as the fifth, we should have to

allow that the lowest right rib is the twelfth and careful ex-

amination of the costal remnants forces me to reject this sugges-

tion. All the bodies are cemented together into one piece and

it is not always easy to identify the area corresponding to the

intervertebral disc. The various dimensions are read at a glance

from Fig. 9, from which also it is seen that the heads of the left

ribs are embedded on the ventral surface of the vertebra while

those of the right side are hidden behind the flattened out

column. Thus the area of at least the lower vertebrae shown

in the photograph corresponds rather to the left ventral aspect

of the bones. In other words the compressing force has caught

the spinal column obliquely and since the vertebrae would

naturally fall on one or other side as the body settled down this

oblique compression is easily understood. It is also evident that

the settling of the body and the turning to the right of the

vertebral column occurred while the costo-vertebral ligaments

were still more or less intact.

"The fragment of right thorax like the last mentioned shows

evidence upon its reverse face of an ash laden surface.  In

spite of the compression, enough of the curvature of the ribs

has remained to make it certain that they are upper and not

lower members of the series. The highest, moreover, is broader

than the others and by comparison with its neighbor and with

244       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

the first rib which is definitely known, it is at once identified

as the second. This fragment then which is like the rest appar-

ently mineralized throughout* consists of the 2d, to the ₇th

ribs inclusive of the right side. The sketch of Fig. 9 shows

perhaps more clearly than the photograph, the parts of the ribs

preserved and their characters.

"The intercostal muscles are wonderfully distinct. Their

fibres can be seen clearly under the microscope and display the

'resinous' appearance characteristic of muscles so preserved.

The portion of the axillary border of the scapula united in

this fragment needs no comment.

At once the question presents itself: What is the nature of

the cementing substance and under what influence have portions

of muscular tissue been preserved? But it is simpler to consider

this matter after the actual physical character of the bones has

been dealt with.

"The fragment including the calvicle and first rib of the

right side shows also certain prominences which from their shape

and position seem to be the ventral limbs of the transverse proc-

esses of the 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae. It is impossible to

confirm this however, for on the reverse surface a root has

grown and embedded itself in the material just where one would

expect to find vestiges of the spines. Like the two last men-

tioned fragments this one presents a rough and somewhat con-

clave ash-laden dorsal surface. The clavicle is turned so that

its ventral surface lies uppermost, the inner forward convexity

arching over the first rib, the outer backward convexity lying

lateral to the rib (see Fig. 9) and is so crushed as to approximate

somewhat the ventral and dorsal aspects. The extremities are

more crushed than the shaft and the sternal end is broken. The

first rib remains almost intact but some artificial convexity has

been produced by the bending downward of the extremities. The

site of the sulous subolaviae is hidden by the clavicle and most

of the area related to the subclavian vein is missing.

"Of the right humerus the upper extremity is missing and

the lower is incomplete. The bone is compressed so that the

*Apparently only for on floating fragments on distilled water, oil

globules separated out.

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.        245

dorsal and ventral aspects are almost in contact, but the flattening

is greatest at the extremities. The trochlear fossa is almost ob-

literated but the fossa oleorani and bicipital groove are still dis-

tinctly recognizable. Ashes and charred material encrust the

dorsal aspect of this bone also on which can be seen many verti-

cal fissures.

"The left femur and patella are in fair preservation though

much broken up. When the fragments are placed in position,

the appearance shown in Fig. 9, is presented. Thus only the

head, neck and condylar surfaces are missing. The two ends of

the bone have suffered greatly from crushing which has affected

the femur practically in the sagittal direction. The compact

tissue of ventral and dorsal aspects have been forced almost into

contact though the shaft has suffered less compression than the

two extremities. The normal forward convexity of the shaft

is obliterated. The lateral and medial aspects of the upper two-

thirds of the shaft from immediately beneath the lesser trochanter

have been cracked. The patella is but slightly crushed. On the

other hand it has made a considerable depression on the already

much crushed lower extremity of the femur in which it is firmly

embedded. There is less charred material on the dorsal aspect

of the femur than on any other of the bones.

"The left tibia and fibula are still united by some brick-hard

material round which is a good deal of earth. The former is

almost complete, the latter bone lacks its upper and lower ex-

tremities. Both are heavily coated with a hard soil in which

many quartz crystals can be seen. These bones, like the rest have

suffered compression but the lower extremities are only slightly

affected and the middle third of the fibula seems to have been

protected from compression by the presence of the tibia of which

the upper extremity and upper third have suffered severely. The

bones must have rolled outward upon the settling of the body

because the line of action of the compressing force passes through

the tibia not in the sagittal direction but from before, backward

and laterally. Both bones exhibit slight post-mortem bowing

forward, the maximum convexity occurring about the junction

of the middle and lower thirds of the tibia and at a somewhat

246       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

more distal point on the fibula. Much splintering and a certain

small amount of charred material are seen on the dorsal aspect.

"The right fibula is cracked in its middle two-fourths. It

is flattened only in its upper third which can be recognized as

such in spite of the absence of both extremities, by the direction

of the nutrient foramen and in a coronal direction, so that its

medial and lateral surfaces are forced into contact (see Fig. 9.)

No distortion has occurred in the length of the bone. It ex-

hibits very little charred material.

"Since every bone shows compression in a very definite di-

rection it can be stated with confidence that the body was lying

in the grave upon its back. This is confirmed by the fact that

the dorsal aspect alone shows evidence of the adherence of ashes.

Once this position is admitted the varying amount of compres-

sion of the several bones is explicable. In all cases the shaft

naturally shows less distortion than the extremities, but allowing

for this, the greatest crushing occurred in the bones of the torso

and arms (which would be placed by the sides.) The leg bones

suffered less and indeed the lower ends of tibia and fibula are

scarcely affected. Since the bones of the vertebral column have

less compact tissue than those of the limbs it might be supposed

that an equal weight distributed over the whole body would

cause greater deformation of the vertebrae. That this was not

the case in the body under consideration is shown by the fact

that the humerus and clavicle suffered as greatly or nearly as

greatly as the vertebral column. Earth must then have been

heaped up more over the trunk than over the lower extrmities.

It is now clear that the deformation was largely or entirely due

to external factors.

No pathological condition of any part of the skeleton need

be invoked as a predisposing cause. Had there been a local

pathological cause, hemiplegia for instance, the deformation

would have been distributed otherwise. It is true that such

distortion might be predisposed to by an osteomalacic state, by

senility or by excessive bodily stoutness. But the bones show

no alteration in the relative thickness of their compact tissue

to the size of the shaft. (Though this is scarcely measurable

it is easily enough estimated by experience.)  They do not

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.       247

show that reduction of cancellous tissue found in the light

fragile bones of the senile or the obese. In fact cancellous and

compact tissue are well marked and the bones exhibit the texture

of those of an individual in active middle age. No spondylitis,

no lipping of articular margins are present to indicate old age

or the wear of life, such as can be frequently found in Indian

skeletons past the prime.

"If then, we abandon as causes for the distortion any

pathological condition of the body itself, we must note what

indications are present of external factors and to this we shall

return later."

It has been observed that the skeleton as far as can be

ascertained is that of an individual in the prime of life. Its

sex is not so easily identified. From the appearance of muscular

ridges on the long bones, from the relative size of measured

or estimated articular ends when compared with the shafts, from

the character of the ribs, experience would suggest this to be

the skeleton of a woman. But knowing the great variations

to be found in such bones as are here preserved, and especially

since the sex of any skeleton may easily be belied by the appear-

ance of its long bones, one hesitates to dogmatize. For the

purpose of confirmation or otherwise of this "biological" read-

ing of the sex, measurements have been made wherever possible

of the bones of skeleton A and B and are to be compared with

the corresponding measurements made upon a typical male and

female Indian taken recently from a mound in Kelley's Island.

It is to be noted that average measurements of a number of

individuals have not been taken as standards.  This perhaps

requires a word of explanation. In individuals of both sexes

there are not only considerable difference in mere dimensions

of bones and variation in the actual type and this in the same

race (Cf. Ales Hrdlicka; A study of the normal tibia. Am.

Anthrop. 1898, vol. XX, p. 307).   Therefore the average,

whether it be of dimensions or indices and ratios, taken over

a large number of bones reduces the study to a mathematical

statement which may be far from representing the actual

physical appearance of the bones investigated. For this reason

typical adult specimens of both sexes were chosen (Figs. 12 and

248       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

13) and measurements made, which might be taken in them-

selves and their ratios as approximate sex standards. In com-

paring with these the measurements on skeleton A, it is neces-

sary always to have before one the figures of the bones them-

selves so that when the signs + or -  occur, one may estimate

approximately how much should be added or substracted to give

the real measurement, for through fragmentation and compres-

sion, the actual measurements are vitiated. At first sight this

may and probably will seem a very unsatisfactory method, but

it is the only one possible and if the tables are carefully com-

pared side by side with the figures on the millimeter paper, it

will be conceded I think, that one can come pretty close to the

mathematical truth. In taking measurements direct, from the

squared paper, it must be remembered that owing to torsion and

deformation of the bones, the plane of the paper does not always

correspond with the plane in which the calipers were held when

the actual measurements were made. In taking all measure-

ments the directions given in Martin's Lehrbuch der Anthro-

pologie, Jan., 1914, were carefully followed as a standard of

uniformity. The number and the title are therefore sufficient

indication of the method of obtaining each measurement since

they refer directly to those in Martin's Lehrbuch. In the case

of the right fibula of skeleton B however, none of Martin's

measurements were suitable. The two measurements a and b

at the end of the table were made with the Gleitzirkel and

these are the only ones taken which are not described by Martin.

Measurements.                          No. 3.                  No 4.

Tibia.                                   R           L            R           L            A     B

1 General length .....                 387        381+       361        349+       350

lb. Length of Tibia..                 376        376+       355        343         356-

2a. Joint-face

measurement ...    376    377   350    345    341

3 Greatest proximal

epighysis breadth   76     71+   67.5   67.5   71-

6 Greatest distal

epiphysis breadth   47.5   46+   44     38+    47- 40

7 Sagittal diameter of

lower epiphysis..   33+    36.3  31     32     27+ 31

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.               249

Measurements.                              No. 3.                  No. 4.

Patella.                                  R                         L            R               L                              A      B

1 Greatest height........               37          ....          37          40.5

2 Greatest breadth ...   ....          42.2       ....          36          38.5

Femur.

2 Greatest trochanter

length ..........    445     446    423     422     400?

6 Sagittal diameter at

middle shaft .....    27.5    28.0   28.5    28.5    22+

7 Transverse diameter

at middle shaft..     26.2    23.5    24.0   24.0   27-

8 Circumference of

middle shaft .....                 82.0       80.5       81.5       80          84?

21 Epicondylar breadth               79          82          71          71          70+

29 Angle between neck

and shaft.........   132^°    130^°    119^°   120^°    126^°?

Humerus.

4a. Greatest epicon-

dylar breadth  ...     61      60     53.5    53.0    50+

5 Greatest thickness

at middle ......      24      23.5    21.5   21.5    27-

7a. Circumference at

middle .........      69      66       ?     67     58

11  Breadth of troch-

lea  .............    24      21      16     16      19-

12 Breadth of Capitu-

lum  ............     19       ?      19.5   19      16+

14 Breadth of fossa

oleorani .........    24      24.5    24.0   24.5    24.5

Clavicle.

1     Greatest length...   157.5   165.5  141     146     140.7

4     Vertical thickness

of middle .......     10       9      9.5     8.7    11.5

5   Sagittal thickness

of middle .......     14      12.5    11.2    9.5     8.5+

6 Circumference of

middle ..........     39      36.5   34      29     33?-

R.  Fibula ...........

a. Greatest   sagittal

diameter of lower

epiphysis ........      ?     25.5    21.5   21.2  ....   21.0

b. Greatest   coronal

diameter of lower

epiphysis ........      ?     18.0    18.0   16.2  ....   14.0

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.       251

actually concave through pressure upon underlying material and

the fibula lies in contact with the lateral area. The medial (sub-

cutaneous) surface has been flattened out very greatly and con-

siderably fissured. The lower extremities of the two bones have

suffered much less from compression than the shafts but show

that the force was applied relative to the bones in a backward

and outward direction. Actually the bones have rotated out-

ward as the body collapsed and hence have been crushed in this

manner.

"The next point to be considered is the post-mortem treat-

ment of the bodies. I have already spoken of the evidence of

charred wood encrusting the dorsal aspect of the bones. It is

evident from the fact that the wood ashes occur only on this sur-

face that the body was not buried in soil containing the remains

of fires. It must either have been laid upon the hearth and

covered over or cremated. There is no doubt that the latter is

what happened.

"All the fragments, but more especially those comprising

bones of the torso and arm, show distinctly vestiges of muscular

tissue and indeed the intercostals and scalenes can be identified

readily. The muscular tissue is charred in many places and still

shows the fragmentation of the fibres produced by the great heat.

Much muscular tissue and what must indicate the one time in-

tervertebral discs are left, the former on the dorsal aspect of

the vertebral column and thus the several vertebrae are firmly

cemented together. The same is true of the ribs. Minute glob-

ules of oil can still be obtained from this tissue. Indeed it re-

minded me strongly of the condition seen in some of the graves

of the pre-dynastic and early dynastic Egyptians in Nubia. In

these shallow graves in the sand exposed to the intense heat and

drying influence of the sun, much of the bodies has often been

preserved without any effort upon man's part. A somewhat

analogous action has occurred through fire in the present in-

stance. Muscular tissue from the thoracic wall from the erector

spinal of the back and from the elbow remains in considerable

amount and in it the fibre bundles may still readily be seen. The

other bones show only charred remains of muscle adherent to

the dorsal aspect. Here and there among the muscle can be

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.       253

found small masses of carbonized material presenting the glisten-

ing black surface and finely striated texture of charred wood

and again fine whitish grey wood ashes, invariably however on

the under aspect of the body as it must have lain upon the pyre.

The bones themselves show little evidence of charring, only the

sternal end of the clavicle displays a fractured and burned sur-

face. Everywhere the bones are mottled both externally and

in the cancellous tissue with black stains. This is not actual

charring. In some instances it may be altered blood pigment

but in the majority of places it is undoubtedly due to chemical

action of the soil; so-called humin stains.

"The tibia and fibula of skeleton B display these humin

stains also and in addition on the lower quarter of the fibula

is a distinct area where the bone has been scorched and blackened

though not burned. The lower part of this bone also shows

small rust colored patches suggestive but in the absence of injury

scarcely diagnostic of blood.

"Upon all sides of the lower extremities of the tibia and

fibula belonging to skeleton A are to be found minute masses of

red ochre, which can be scraped off at once with a knife leaving

a clean bone surface. This color is not to be found upon any

other bones of skeleton A nor is it present upon the articular

surface of the tibia or fibula. It is not to be seen on skeleton

B. The idea of actual painting of the bones may be dismissed

at once. Much clearer evidence for this than has been produced

so far in literature must be obtained before one can concede such

a habit of mutilation ever to have occurred among American

aborigines. In the present instance the charred muscle upon the

bones indicates that they were not stripped of flesh. Again ochre

stains occur everywhere round the lower extremity of the tibia

even on the areas to which the ligaments of the ankle joints are

attached, but not upon the particular surface itself. It is not,

however, so clear, whether the skin of the individual was

painted with ochre before cremation or whether the color came

from the wrappings. Many vegetable fibres occur in and among

the bones but all of those which can be examined are more or

less recent roots. Embedded between the bones of skeleton B,

however, I found a number of masses of vegetable fibre which

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.      255

under the microscope proved to be roots the ends of some of

which were brightly colored with the same ochre. Apparently

they were accidentally stained by gathering small masses of

ochre which had been sprinkled over the body before or after

cremation took place.

We have seen then that the skeletons are those of adults,

probably women, in the prime of life who died from some

undiscovered cause and were incompletely cremated; that they

were laid on their back on the pyre, that ochre was either

sprinkled upon the bodies or used as a pigment for the mat-

tings in which they were wrapped and that after cremation the

bones were not disturbed. There is no evidence of attempts

of preservation.

"We have still to consider the causes of the extreme de-

formation. It is certain from the ascertained relative positions

of the bones that they were not disturbed after the burning.

Soil was thrown upon them and settled down among them and

that this was done very soon is shown by the lack of ash or

charred wood among the soil encrusting the ventral aspects of

the bones. The soil however is not baked in any way. The

bones were not entirely mineralized by the cremation and lay

partially embedded in a mass of charred wood and wood ashes,

the alkaline reaction of which with the dampness of the soil

would react upon the bones somewhat as it does in artificial

maceration. It would make them softer than usual and more

respondent to external pressure. The amount of this natural

lye would obviously be greater under the body than under the

legs and thus the bones of trunk and arm would be the more

affected. In addition it would be natural to heap more soil over

the center of the body and thus the pressure exercised by weight

of earth would be greatest here. But the weight of soil may

not have been and probably was not the greatest factor in bring-

ing about the deformation of the bones. I do not yet know

the precise position of the skeletons in the mound, but that is

not, to my mind, very important.

"We know that mounds were built gradually, a bit at a

time as necessary. It is likely then that the chief factor in

256       Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

distorting the bones was not the amount of earth heaped upon

them but the steady pressure exerted by this earth through

constant pattering to and fro of Indian feet, upon a relatively

small amount of earth, above the burial. The constant pounding

and continuous pressure upon a skeleton rendered unnaturally

soft and pliable as these undoubtedly were, is capable of enor-

mous effect.

"It may be objected that little or no evidence has been

produced to prove this assertion and that the result has been

attained largely by a method of exclusion. This is to a certain

extent true.  Sufficient evidence has been obtained to show

that the distortion was not brought about in any of the other

ways known to be possible. Indeed all the evidence points to

the external factor. It is, as I have said, recognized that mounds

were built gradually and at irregular intervals, and it is con-

ceded that the steady pressure and effect of well packed soil is

very great. No better example need to be cited than that found

at Shellal in Nubia by Professor Elliot Smith and Dr. Wood

Jones. Over this archaic cemetery in which the bodies were

buried in alluvial mud the main street of Shellal came to be

situated. Scarcely a skull in this cemetery retained its proper

shape. (Arch. Survey Nubia, Report for 1907-08. Vol. 11,

1910, pp. 221-2.) The most likely cause of the hard packing

of a relatively small amount of earth in an Indian mound is the

constant passing and repassing of the people over it. In this

way the pressure would start from the time of the burial and

therefore would act when the bones owing to decomposition

products and the alkalinity of the wood ashes were most im-

pressionable."

Burial No. 7, was similar to No. 6 in that the skeleton was

compressed and the muscular tissue preserved and attached to

the bones. The burial was placed directly to the southeast of

the preceding, and about one foot higher up. This skeleton is

included in Dr. Todd's report, and his conclusions apply equally

to the two.

Burial No. 8 was found within five feet of the top of the

mound. It is shown as Fig. 14. This burial, together with all

those remaining to be described with the exception of No. 9,

probably represent reburials. In this instance, the lower jaw,

Explorations of the Westenhaver Mound.       265

remains were placed in a sepulcher built of logs. The logs

covering the top of the grave would serve to restrain the super-

incumbent earth doubtless for many years, or at least until the

earth composing the mound above them had assumed a settled

and compact form. Eventually however, the decay of the logs

would permit the soil gradually to crumble into the grave, fill-

ing it with the loose earth, and leaving above it an arched cavity.

The gradual slipping down of the loose earth, in this instance,

was noticeable to a height of six or eight feet above the top

of the grave. This condition is often noticeable in mounds con-

taining subterranean burials, and is an infallible clue to their

location. In this particular grave, the soil filling it was so loose

that it was readily scooped out with a hand trowel, leaving the

grave as fresh and clean-cut as if newly dug.

Burial No. 10 was placed five feet above the base line. It

had been so disarranged by groundhog burrows that little could

be learned of its original condition, many of the bones being

missing and scattered.

Burial No. 11 was an adult male, placed two and one-half

feet above the base of the mound. One arm and both feet were

missing, indicating a re-burial. No implements or ornaments

were placed in the grave, the same being true of all the secondary

burials.

Burial No. 12, was that of an adult female, but only the

skull and the arm and leg bones were present.

Burial No. 13, an adult male, was placed at the extreme

southeast corner of the mound. Practically all the small bones

were missing, and the-larger bones present were badly decom-

posed.

Burial No. 14, placed in the southern section of the mound,

four and one-half feet above the base line, was very incomplete.

The head, one arm, and parts of both feet were missing. The

grave had not been disturbed and doubtless represented a re-

burial.

Burial No. 15, the last one found in the mound, was located

at the southwest side, four feet above the base and but 18 inches

below the surface. The skull and a few long bones only were

found.

266      Ohio Arch. and Hist. Society Publications.

CONCLUSIONS.

The examination of the Westenhaver mound shows that it

belongs to the early Hopewell culture, and in many ways re-

sembles the Adena mound, located near Chillicothe. These

mounds represent an interesting and distinct stage in the de-

velopment of the Hopewell culture, to which they undoubtedly

belong, as evidenced by the possession and use of copper, the

skillful carving of stone, and other characteristics of the highest

of the several cultures of Ohio aborigines. However, the use

of copper, artistic stone carving and other marks of the typical

Hopewell peoples are not so frequent as in the mounds represent-

ing the highest development of that culture, while on the other

hand evidences and influences attributable to the lower cultures

are more abundant. While the use of the sacred fire ceremony

appears to have held a prominent place with these intermediary

peoples, as well as with their more advanced prototypes, they ap-

pear not to have reached the plane where cremation of the dead

was practiced.

With evidences of cultural advancement through any consid-

erable period of time so obviously lacking, as regards the aborigi-

nal inhabitants of the Ohio valley, it is perhaps gratifying to note

that here, at least, in tracing the history of the Hopewell culture,

we have at last something very definite. The evolution from a

lower to a higher plane is exemplified in the Adena and Westen-

haver stages, with such mounds as the Seip and Harness inter-

mediate, and the Hopewell and Tremper mounds representing the

highest development.

Future explorations doubtless will more clearly demonstrate

this cultural development and furnish examples of still other

stages in the process.